| History of art |
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Byzantine art comprises the body of artistic products of theEastern Roman Empire,[1] as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from thedecline of western Rome and lasted until theFall of Constantinople in 1453,[2] the start date of the Byzantine period is rather clearer in art history than in political history, if still imprecise. ManyEastern Orthodox states in Eastern Europe, as well as to some degree theIslamic states of the easternMediterranean, preserved many aspects of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward.
A number of contemporary states with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire were culturally influenced by it without actually being part of it (the "Byzantine commonwealth"). These includedKievan Rus', as well as some non-Orthodox states like theRepublic of Venice, which separated from the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century, and theKingdom of Sicily, which had close ties to the Byzantine Empire and had also been a Byzantine territory until the 10th century with a large Greek-speaking population persisting into the 12th century. Other states having a Byzantine artistic tradition, had oscillated throughout the Middle Ages between being part of the Byzantine Empire and having periods of independence, such asSerbia andBulgaria. After thefall of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 1453, art produced by Eastern Orthodox Christians living in theOttoman Empire was often called "post-Byzantine." Certain artistic traditions that originated in the Byzantine Empire, particularly in regard to icon painting and church architecture, are maintained inGreece,Cyprus,Serbia,Bulgaria,Romania,Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the present day.
Byzantine art originated and evolved from the Christianized Greek culture of the Eastern Roman Empire; content from both Christianity and classical Greek mythology were artistically expressed through Hellenistic modes of style and iconography.[3] The art of Byzantium never lost sight of its classical heritage; the Byzantine capital,Constantinople, was adorned with a large number of classical sculptures,[4] although they eventually became an object of some puzzlement for its inhabitants[5] (however, Byzantine beholders showed no signs of puzzlement towards other forms of classical media such as wall paintings[6]). The basis of Byzantine art is a fundamental artistic attitude held by the Byzantine Greeks who, like their ancient Greek predecessors, "were never satisfied with a play of forms alone, but stimulated by an innate rationalism, endowed forms with life by associating them with a meaningful content."[7] Although the art produced in the Byzantine Empire was marked by periodic revivals of a classical aesthetic, it was above all marked by the development of a new aesthetic defined by its salient "abstract", or anti-naturalistic character. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favor of a more symbolic approach.
The nature and causes of this transformation, which largely took place duringlate antiquity, have been a subject of scholarly debate for centuries.[8]Giorgio Vasari attributed it to a decline in artistic skills and standards, which had in turn been revived by his contemporaries in theItalian Renaissance. Although this point of view has been occasionally revived, most notably byBernard Berenson,[9] modern scholars tend to take a more positive view of the Byzantine aesthetic.Alois Riegl andJosef Strzygowski, writing in the early 20th century, were above all responsible for the revaluation of late antique art.[10] Riegl saw it as a natural development of pre-existing tendencies in Roman art, whereas Strzygowski viewed it as a product of "oriental" influences. Notable recent contributions to the debate include those ofErnst Kitzinger,[11] who traced a "dialectic" between "abstract" and "Hellenistic" tendencies in late antiquity, andJohn Onians,[12] who saw an "increase in visual response" in late antiquity, through which a viewer "could look at something which was in twentieth-century terms purely abstract and find it representational."
In any case, the debate is purely modern: it is clear that most Byzantine viewers did not consider their art to be abstract or unnaturalistic. AsCyril Mango has observed, "our own appreciation of Byzantine art stems largely from the fact that this art is not naturalistic; yet the Byzantines themselves, judging by their extant statements, regarded it as being highly naturalistic and as being directly in the tradition ofPhidias,Apelles, andZeuxis."[13]
The subject matter of monumental Byzantine art was primarily religious and imperial: the two themes are often combined, as in the portraits of later Byzantine emperors that decorated the interior of the sixth-century church ofHagia Sophia in Constantinople. These preoccupations are partly a result of the pious and autocratic nature of Byzantine society, and partly a result of its economic structure: the wealth of the empire was concentrated in the hands of the church and the imperial office, which had the greatest opportunity to undertake monumental artistic commissions.
Religious art was not, however, limited to the monumental decoration of church interiors. One of the most important genres of Byzantine art was theicon, an image of Christ, the Virgin, or a saint, used as an object of veneration in Orthodox churches and private homes alike. Icons were more religious than aesthetic in nature: especially after the end of iconoclasm, they were understood to manifest the unique "presence" of the figure depicted by means of a "likeness" to that figure maintained through carefully maintained canons of representation.[14]
Byzantine illuminated manuscripts were another major genre of Byzantine art. The most commonly illustrated texts were religious, both scripture itself (particularly the Psalms) and devotional or theological texts (such as theLadder of Divine Ascent ofJohn Climacus or the homilies ofGregory of Nazianzus). Secular texts were also illuminated: important examples include theAlexander Romance and the history ofJohn Skylitzes.
The Byzantines inherited theEarly Christian distrust ofmonumental sculpture in religious art, and produced onlyreliefs, of which very few survivals are anything like life-size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived fromCarolingian art onwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief.
The so-called "minor arts" were very important in Byzantine art and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief as formal presentationConsular diptychs or caskets such as theVeroli casket,hardstone carvings,enamels,glass, jewelry, metalwork, andfigured silks were produced in large quantities throughout the Byzantine era, many continuing and adapting late Roman artistic practice though Byzantine silk production only began after theyimported silkworms from China in the late sixth century.[15] Many of these were religious in nature, although a large number of objects with secular or non-representational decoration were produced: for example, ivories representing themes from classical mythology. Byzantine ceramics were relatively crude, as pottery was never used at the tables of the rich, who ate offByzantine silver.
Byzantine art and architecture is divided into four periods by convention: the Early period, commencing with theEdict of Milan (when Christian worship was legitimized) and the transfer of the imperial seat to Constantinople, extends to AD 842, with the conclusion ofIconoclasm; the Middle, or high period, begins with the restoration of the icons in 843 and culminates in the Fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders in 1204; the Late period includes the eclectic osmosis between Western European and traditional Byzantine elements in art and architecture, and ends with the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The term post-Byzantine is then used for later years, whereas "Neo-Byzantine" is used for art and architecture from the 19th century onwards, when the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire prompted a renewed appreciation of Byzantium by artists and historians alike.
Two events were of fundamental importance to the development of a unique, Byzantine art. First, theEdict of Milan, issued by the emperorsConstantine I andLicinius in 313, allowed for public Christian worship, and led to the development of a monumental, Christian art. Second, the dedication ofConstantinople in 330 created a great new artistic centre for the eastern half of the Empire, and a specifically Christian one. Other artistic traditions flourished in rival cities such asAlexandria,Antioch, andRome, but it was not until all of these cities had fallen - the first two to theArabs and Rome to theGoths - that Constantinople established its supremacy.
Constantine devoted great effort to the decoration of Constantinople, adorning its public spaces with ancient statuary,[16] and building aforum dominated by a porphyry column that carried a statue of himself.[17] Major Constantinopolitan churches built under Constantine and his son,Constantius II, included the original foundations ofHagia Sophia and theChurch of the Holy Apostles.[18]
The next major building campaign in Constantinople was sponsored byTheodosius I. The most important surviving monument of this period is the obelisk and base erected by Theodosius in theHippodrome[19] which, with the large silver dish called theMissorium of Theodosius I, represents the classic examples of what is sometimes called the "Theodosian Renaissance". The earliest surviving church in Constantinople is the Basilica of St. John at theStoudios Monastery, built in the fifth century.[20]
Due to subsequent rebuilding and destruction, relatively few Constantinopolitan monuments of this early period survive. However, the development of monumental early Byzantine art can still be traced through surviving structures in other cities. For example, important early churches are found in Rome (includingSanta Sabina andSanta Maria Maggiore),[21] and inThessaloniki (theRotunda and theAcheiropoietos Basilica).[22]
A number of important illuminated manuscripts, both sacred and secular, survive from this early period. Classical authors, includingVirgil (represented by theVergilius Vaticanus[23] and theVergilius Romanus)[24] andHomer (represented by theAmbrosian Iliad), were illustrated with narrative paintings. Illuminated biblical manuscripts of this period survive only in fragments: for example, theQuedlinburg Itala fragment is a small portion of what must have been a lavishly illustrated copy of1 Kings.[25]
Early Byzantine art was also marked by the cultivation ofivory carving.[26] Ivorydiptychs, often elaborately decorated, were issued as gifts by newly appointedconsuls.[27] Silver plates were another important form of luxury art:[28] among the most lavish from this period is theMissorium of Theodosius I.[29]Sarcophagi continued to be produced in great numbers.
Significant changes in Byzantine art coincided with the reign ofJustinian I (527–565). Justinian devoted much of his reign to reconquering Italy, North Africa and Spain. He also laid the foundations of the imperial absolutism of the Byzantine state, codifying its laws and imposing his religious views on all his subjects by law.[30]
A significant component of Justinian's project of imperial renovation was a massive building program, which was described in a book, theBuildings, written by Justinian's court historian,Procopius.[31] Justinian renovated, rebuilt, or founded anew countless churches within Constantinople, includingHagia Sophia,[32] which had been destroyed during theNika riots, theChurch of the Holy Apostles,[33] and theChurch of Saints Sergius and Bacchus.[34] Justinian also built a number of churches and fortifications outside of the imperial capital, includingSaint Catherine's Monastery onMount Sinai inEgypt,[35]Basilica of Saint Sofia inSofia and the Basilica of St. John inEphesus.[36]
Several major churches of this period were built in the provinces by local bishops in imitation of the new Constantinopolitan foundations. TheBasilica of San Vitale inRavenna, was built by BishopMaximianus. The decoration of San Vitale includes important mosaics of Justinian and his empress,Theodora, although neither ever visited the church.[37] Also of note is theEuphrasian Basilica inPoreč.[38]
Recent archeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries unearthed a large group ofEarly Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East. The eastern provinces of theEastern Roman Empire inherited a strong artistic tradition fromLate Antiquity. Christian mosaic art flourished in this area from the 4th century onwards.The tradition of making mosaics was carried on in theUmayyad era until the end of the 8th century. The most important surviving examples are theMadaba Map, the mosaics ofMount Nebo, Saint Catherine's Monastery and the Church of St Stephen in ancient Kastron Mefaa (nowUmm ar-Rasas).
The first fully preserved illuminated biblical manuscripts date to the first half of the sixth century, most notably theVienna Genesis,[39] theRossano Gospels,[40] and theSinope Gospels.[41] TheVienna Dioscurides is a lavishly illustrated botanical treatise, presented as a gift to the Byzantine aristocratJulia Anicia.[42]
Important ivory sculptures of this period include theBarberini ivory, which probably depicts Justinian himself,[43] and theArchangel ivory in theBritish Museum.[44]Byzantine silver plate continued to be decorated with scenes drawn from classical mythology; for example, a plate in the Cabinet des Médailles, Paris, depictsHercules wrestling theNemean lion.[citation needed]
The Age of Justinian was followed by a political decline, since most of Justinian's conquests were lost and the Empire faced acute crisis with the invasions of theAvars,Slavs, Persians andArabs in the 7th century. Constantinople was also wracked by religious and political conflict.[45]
The most significant surviving monumental projects of this period were undertaken outside of the imperial capital. The church ofHagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki was rebuilt after a fire in the mid-seventh century. The new sections include mosaics executed in a remarkably abstract style.[46] The church of the Koimesis in Nicaea (present-dayIznik), destroyed in the early 20th century but documented through photographs, demonstrates the simultaneous survival of a more classical style of church decoration.[47] The churches of Rome, still a Byzantine territory in this period, also include important surviving decorative programs, especiallySanta Maria Antiqua,Sant'Agnese fuori le mura, and the Chapel of San Venanzio inSan Giovanni in Laterano.[48] Byzantine mosaicists probably also contributed to the decoration of the earlyUmayyad monuments, including theDome of the Rock inJerusalem and theGreat Mosque of Damascus.[49]
Important works of luxury art from this period include the silverDavid Plates, produced during the reign of EmperorHeraclius, and depicting scenes from the life of the Hebrew kingDavid.[50] The most notable surviving manuscripts areSyriac gospel books, such as the so-calledSyriac Bible of Paris.[51] However, theLondon Canon Tables bear witness to the continuing production of lavish gospel books in Greek.[52]
The period between Justinian and iconoclasm saw major changes in the social and religious roles of images within Byzantium. The veneration ofacheiropoieta, or holy images "not made by human hands," became a significant phenomenon, and in some instances these images were credited with saving cities from military assault. By the end of the seventh century, certain images of saints had come to be viewed as "windows" through which one could communicate with the figure depicted.Proskynesis before images is also attested in texts from the late seventh century. These developments mark the beginnings of a theology oficons.[53]
At the same time, the debate over the proper role of art in the decoration of churches intensified.Three canons of theQuinisext Council of 692 addressed controversies in this area: prohibition of the representation of the cross on church pavements (Canon 73), prohibition of the representation of Christ as a lamb (Canon 82), and a general injunction against "pictures, whether they are in paintings or in what way so ever, which attract the eye and corrupt the mind, and incite it to the enkindling of base pleasures" (Canon 100).
Intense debate over the role of art in worship led eventually to the period of "Byzantine iconoclasm."[54] Sporadic outbreaks of iconoclasm on the part of local bishops are attested in Asia Minor during the 720s. In 726, an underwater earthquake between the islands of Thera and Therasia was interpreted by EmperorLeo III as a sign of God's anger, and may have led Leo to remove a famous icon of Christ from theChalke Gate outside the imperial palace.[55] However, iconoclasm probably did not become imperial policy until the reign of Leo's son,Constantine V. TheCouncil of Hieria, convened under Constantine in 754, proscribed the manufacture of icons of Christ. This inaugurated theIconoclastic period, which lasted, with interruptions, until 843.
While iconoclasm severely restricted the role of religious art, and led to the removal of some earlier apse mosaics and (possibly) the sporadic destruction of portable icons, it never constituted a total ban on the production of figural art. Ample literary sources indicate that secular art (i.e. hunting scenes and depictions of the games in the hippodrome) continued to be produced,[56] and the few monuments that can be securely dated to the period (most notably the manuscript of Ptolemy's "Handy Tables" today held by the Vatican[57]) demonstrate that metropolitan artists maintained a high quality of production.[58]
Major churches dating to this period includeHagia Eirene in Constantinople, which was rebuilt in the 760s following its destruction by the740 earthquake. The interior of Hagia Eirene, which is dominated by a large mosaic cross in the apse, is one of the best-preserved examples of iconoclastic church decoration.[59] The church of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki was also rebuilt in the late 8th century.[60]
Certain churches built outside of the empire during this period, but decorated in a figural, "Byzantine," style, may also bear witness to the continuing activities of Byzantine artists. Particularly important in this regard are the original mosaics of thePalatine Chapel in Aachen (since either destroyed or heavily restored) and the frescoes in the Church ofMaria foris portas inCastelseprio.
The rulings of the Council of Hieria were reversed by a new church council in 843, celebrated to this day in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the "Triumph of Orthodoxy." In 867, the installation of a new apse mosaic in Hagia Sophia depicting the Virgin and Child was celebrated by the PatriarchPhotios in a famous homily as a victory over the evils of iconoclasm. Later in the same year, the EmperorBasil I, called "the Macedonian," acceded to the throne; as a result the following period of Byzantine art has sometimes been called the "Macedonian Renaissance", although the term is doubly problematic (it was neither "Macedonian", nor, strictly speaking, a "Renaissance").
In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Empire's military situation improved, and patronage of art and architecture increased. New churches were commissioned, and the standard architectural form (the "cross-in-square") and decorative scheme of the Middle Byzantine church were standardised. Major surviving examples includeHosios Loukas inBoeotia, theDaphni Monastery nearAthens andNea Moni onChios.
There was a revival of interest in the depiction of subjects from classical Greek mythology (as on the Veroli Casket) and in the use of a "classical" Hellenistic styles to depict religious, and particularly Old Testament, subjects (of which theParis Psalter and theJoshua Roll are important examples).
The Macedonian period also saw a revival of the late antique technique ofivory carving. Many ornate ivorytriptychs anddiptychs survive, such as theHarbaville Triptych and a triptych atLuton Hoo, dating from the reign ofNicephorus Phocas.
The Macedonian emperors were followed by theKomnenian dynasty, beginning with the reign ofAlexios I Komnenos in 1081. Byzantium had recently suffered a period of severe dislocation following theBattle of Manzikert in 1071 and the subsequent loss of Asia Minor to the Turks. However, the Komnenoi brought stability to the empire (1081–1185) and during the course of the twelfth century their energetic campaigning did much to restore the fortunes of the empire. The Komnenoi were great patrons of the arts, and with their support Byzantine artists continued to move in the direction of greater humanism and emotion, of which theTheotokos of Vladimir, the cycle of mosaics atDaphni, and the murals atNerezi yield important examples. Ivory sculpture and other expensive mediums of art gradually gave way to frescoes and icons, which for the first time gained widespread popularity across the Empire. Apart from painted icons, there were other varieties - notably the mosaic andceramic ones.
Some of the finest Byzantine work of this period may be found outside the Empire: in the mosaics ofGelati,Kiev,Torcello,Venice,Monreale,Cefalù andPalermo. For instance, Venice'sBasilica of St Mark, begun in 1063, was based on the greatChurch of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, now destroyed, and is thus an echo of the age of Justinian. The acquisitive habits of the Venetians mean that the basilica is also a great museum of Byzantine artworks of all kinds (e.g.,Pala d'Oro).
Centuries of continuous Roman political tradition and Hellenistic civilization underwent a crisis in 1204 with the sacking of Constantinople by theVenetian andFrench knights of theFourth Crusade, a disaster from which the Empire recovered in 1261 albeit in a severely weakened state. The destruction by sack or subsequent neglect of the city's secular architecture in particular has left us with an imperfect understanding of Byzantine art.
Although the Byzantines regained the city in 1261, the Empire was thereafter a small and weak state confined to the Greek peninsula and the islands of theAegean. During their half-century of exile, however, the last great flowering of Anatolian Hellenism began. AsNicaea emerged as the center of opposition under theLaskaris emperors, it spawned a renaissance, attracting scholars, poets, and artists from across the Byzantine world. A glittering court emerged as the dispossessed intelligentsia found in the Hellenic side of their traditions a pride and identity unsullied by association with the hated "latin" enemy.[61] With the recapture of the capital under the newPalaeologan Dynasty, Byzantine artists developed a new interest in landscapes and pastoral scenes, and the traditional mosaic-work (of which theChora Church inConstantinople is the finest extant example) gradually gave way to detailed cycles of narrative frescoes (as evidenced in a large group ofMystras churches). The icons, which became a favoured medium for artistic expression, were characterized by a less austere attitude, new appreciation for purely decorative qualities of painting and meticulous attention to details, earning the popular name of the Paleologan Mannerism for the period in general.
Venice came to controlByzantine Crete by 1212, and Byzantine artistic traditions continued long after the Ottoman conquest of thelast Byzantine successor state in 1461. TheCretan school, as it is today known, gradually introduced Italian Renaissance elements into its style, and exported large numbers of icons to Italy. The tradition's most famous artist wasEl Greco.[62][63]
TheByzantine Empire emerged from the EasternRoman Empire in the 4th century AD, and its unique culture heavily influenced Western Europe during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Byzantine art was an essential part of this culture and had certain defining characteristics, such as intricate patterns, rich colors, and religious themes depicting important figures inChristianity.
The fall of Constantinople in 1453 was a significant event in the history of theByzantine Empire, and it had a profound impact on the art world. Many Byzantine artists andintellectuals migrated to Italy, where they played a vital role in shaping theItalian Renaissance. The migration was partly due to the long-standing cultural and commercial ties between theByzantine Empire and Italian city-states, such asVenice andFlorence, as well as the decline of the Byzantine Empire in the preceding centuries.
The influence of Byzantine art on Italian art was significant, with Byzantine artists bringing their techniques and knowledge to Italy, such as the use ofgold leaf andmosaics. They also played a significant role in developing perspective, which became a key element ofRenaissance art.
The splendour of Byzantine art was always in the mind of early medieval Western artists and patrons, and many of the most important movements in the period were conscious attempts to produce art fit to stand next to both classical Roman and contemporary Byzantine art. This was especially the case for the imperialCarolingian art andOttonian art. Luxury products from the Empire were highly valued, and reached for example the royalAnglo-SaxonSutton Hoo burial inSuffolk of the 620s, which contains several pieces of silver.Byzantine silks were especially valued and large quantities were distributed as diplomatic gifts from Constantinople. There are records of Byzantine artists working in the West, especially during the period of iconoclasm, and some works, like the frescos atCastelseprio andminiatures in theVienna Coronation Gospels, seem to have been produced by such figures.
In particular, teams ofmosaic artists were dispatched as diplomatic gestures by emperors to Italy,where they often trained locals to continue their work in a style heavily influenced by Byzantium.Venice andNorman Sicily were particular centres of Byzantine influence. The earliest surviving panel paintings in the West were in a style heavily influenced by contemporary Byzantine icons, until a distinctive Western style began to develop in Italy in theTrecento; the traditional and still influential narrative ofVasari and others has the story of Western painting begin as a breakaway byCimabue and thenGiotto from the shackles of the Byzantine tradition. In general, Byzantine artistic influence on Europe was in steep decline by the 14th century if not earlier, despite the continued importance of migratedByzantine scholars in the Renaissance in other areas.
Islamic art began with artists and craftsmen mostly trained in Byzantine styles, and though figurative content was greatly reduced, Byzantine decorative styles remained a great influence on Islamic art, and Byzantine artists continued to be imported for important works for some time, especially formosaics.
The Byzantine era properly defined came to an end with thefall of Constantinople to theOttoman Turks in 1453, but by this time the Byzantine cultural heritage had been widely diffused, carried by the spread of Orthodox Christianity, toBulgaria,Serbia,Romania and, most importantly, toRussia, which became the centre of the Orthodox world following the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans. Even under Ottoman rule, Byzantine traditions in icon-painting and other small-scale arts survived, especially in the Venetian-ruled Crete andRhodes, where a "post-Byzantine" style under increasing Western influence survived for a further two centuries, producing artists includingEl Greco whose training was in theCretan School which was the most vigorous post-Byzantine school, exporting great numbers of icons to Europe. The willingness of the Cretan School to accept Western influence was atypical; in most of the post-Byzantine world "as an instrument of ethnic cohesiveness, art became assertively conservative during theTurcocratia" (period of Ottoman rule).[64]
Russian icon painting began by entirely adopting and imitating Byzantine art, as did the art of other Orthodox nations, and has remained extremely conservative in iconography, although its painting style has developed distinct characteristics, including influences from post-Renaissance Western art. All the Eastern Orthodox churches have remained highly protective of their traditions in terms of the form and content of images and, for example, modern Orthodoxdepictions of the Nativity of Christ vary little in content from those developed in the 6th century.
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