Roman Empire
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| 324–379 | |||||||||
 The territory of the Eastern Roman Empire, with theWestern Roman Empire depicted in pink. | |||||||||
| Capital | Constantinople | ||||||||
| Common languages | Latin,Greek | ||||||||
| Demonym | Roman | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| Emperor | |||||||||
• 324–337 | Constantine I | ||||||||
• 337–361 | Constantius II | ||||||||
• 361–363 | Julian | ||||||||
• 363–364 | Jovian | ||||||||
• 364 | Valentinian I | ||||||||
• 364–378 | Valens | ||||||||
| History | |||||||||
| 19 September 324 | |||||||||
• coronation ofTheodosius I as Emperor of the East | 19 January 379 | ||||||||
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TheEastern Roman Empire under theConstantinian andValentinian dynasties was the earliest period of theByzantine history that saw a shift in government from Rome in the West toConstantinople in the East within theRoman Empire under emperorConstantine the Great and his successors. Constantinople, formally namedNova Roma, was founded in the city ofByzantium (Ancient Greek:Βυζάντιον,romanized: Byzántion), which is the origin of the historiographical name for the Eastern Empire, which self-identified simply as the "Roman Empire".
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In the 3rd century, the Roman Empire suffered troubling economic difficulties that spread over a wide portion of itsprovinces. Drastic decreases in population throughout the western parts of the empire, along with a general degradation of society within the cities, exacerbated the crisis leading to a shortage of labor. Thelatifundia, or great estates, added to the troubles by forcing many of the smaller estates out of the market, which bled more labor from the labor force in order to sustain their estates. In the East, although there was a labor shortage, the population problem was not nearly as acute, rendering it stronger and more able to withstand a serious crisis.[2] The West, in its reaction to the economic hardships that resulted in very high prices, had gone to abarter system to survive. In contrast, the East had chosen to depend upon gold coinage for the most part, creating a very reliable means by which to sustain itself.[3]
The Roman EmperorsDiocletian andConstantine I both played an important role in reforming the organization of the whole empire. The empire in its entirety had become difficult to control, and Diocletian resolved this by creating aTetrarchy that allowed foraugusti to rule in each of the western and eastern halves of the empire, while twocaesars would be their seconds. In case of the loss of eitheraugusti, thecaesar would take their place, and a newcaesar would be selected. The only significant change made by Constantine to this system was the replacement of the selection ofcaesars with a succession by bloodline.[4]
To alleviate the concerns of territorial administration, Diocletian divided the whole of the empire into one hundred distinct provinces. Administrative control was brought under the auspices of the emperor, and the whole ofItalia was relegated to the status of a regular province, now also compelled to pay taxes. Each province was assigned to adiocese, twelve in total. Constantine organized the provinces even further by creating prefectures, each one consisting of several dioceses, and each diocese consisting of several provinces. ThePraetorian prefecture of the East (Praefectura praetorio per Orientem) was made up of five dioceses-Aegyptus,Oriens,Pontus,Asiana, andThracia. This enabled the empire to harness the control of each prefecture by providing a distinct difference between military and civil administration.[5]
Focus from the West to the East had been shifting over the course of the 2nd century because of economic strength of the usage of gold coinage and a stronger populace. The defensive situation under Diocletian, however, had changed considerably in the East. The PersianSassanids had grown more menacing in their quest for previous territory, and the barbarians were becoming a more serious problem along the lower part of theDanube. Judging the threats to be of dire importance, Diocletian took up residence inNicomedia, where he established his capital there, leavingMaximian, his co-emperor, in charge of the West.[6]
Constantine was acclaimed as emperor by the army atEboracum (modern-dayYork) after his father's death in 306, and he emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against EmperorsMaxentius andLicinius to become sole ruler of both West and East by 324. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire.[7] He built a new imperial residence at Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople after himself. This marks the beginning of Byzantine history.
As emperor, Constantine enacted administrative, financial, social, and military reforms to strengthen the empire. Herestructured the government, separatingcivil andmilitary authorities. To combat inflation he introduced thesolidus, a gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganised to consist ofmobile field units andgarrison soldiers capable of countering internal threats andbarbarian invasions. Constantine pursued successful campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers—theFranks, theAlemanni, theGoths, and theSarmatians—even resettling territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century.
Constantine was the first Roman emperor toconvert to Christianity. He called theFirst Council of Nicaea in 325 that produced the statement of Christian belief known as theNicene Creed. TheChurch of the Holy Sepulchre was built on his orders at the purported site ofJesus' tomb inJerusalem and became the holiest place inChristendom.
Constantius II was the second son of Constantine I andFausta. He ascended to the throne with his brothersConstantine II andConstans upon their father's death. In 340, Constantius' brothers clashed over the western provinces of the empire. The resulting conflict left Constantine II dead and Constans as ruler of the west until he was overthrown and assassinated in 350 by theusurperMagnentius. Unwilling to accept Magnentius as co-ruler, Constantius defeated him at the battles ofMursa Major andMons Seleucus. Magnentius committed suicide after the latter battle, leaving Constantius as sole ruler of the empire.
His subsequent military campaigns against Germanic tribes were successful: he defeated the Alemanni in 354 and campaigned across the Danube against theQuadi and Sarmatians in 357. In contrast, thewar in the east against the Sassanids continued with mixed results. In 351, having difficulty managing the empire alone, Constantius elevated his cousinConstantius Gallus to the subordinate rank ofcaesar, but had him executed three years later after receiving scathing reports of his violent and corrupt nature. Shortly thereafter, in 355, Constantius promoted his last surviving cousin, Gallus' younger half-brother, Julian, to the rank ofcaesar. However, Julian claimed the rank ofAugustus in 360, leading to war between the two. Ultimately, no battle was fought as Constantius became ill and died late in 361, though not before naming Julian as his successor.
In 363,Julian embarked on an ambitious campaign against theSassanid Empire. The campaign was initially successful, securing a victory outsideCtesiphon,[8] but later the Persians flooded the area behind him and Julian took a risky decision to withdraw up the valley of theTigris River, and eventuallyduring a skirmish Julian was mortally wounded, leaving his army trapped in Persian territory. Following his death, the Roman forces were obliged to cede territory in order to escape, including the fortress city ofNisibis.[9]
Julian was a man of unusually complex character: he was "the military commander, thetheosophist, the social reformer, and the man of letters".[10] He was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and he believed that it was necessary to restore the empire's ancient Roman values and traditions in order to save it from dissolution. He purged thetop-heavy state bureaucracy and attempted to revivetraditional Roman religious practices at the expense of Christianity. Julian also forbade the Christians from teaching classical texts and learning.[11] His rejection of Christianity and his promotion ofNeoplatonicHellenism in its place caused him to be remembered asJulian theApostate by the church.[12]
Upon the death of Julian during his campaign against the Sassanid Empire,Jovian was hastily declared emperor by his soldiers. He sought peace with the Persians on humiliating terms and reestablished Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire. His reign lasted only eight months.
Valens was given the eastern half of the empire by his brotherValentinian I after the latter's accession to the throne. Valens was defeated and killed in theBattle of Adrianople, which marked the beginning of the collapse of theWestern Roman Empire.
"Valens was utterly undistinguished, still only aprotector, and possessed no military ability: he betrayed his consciousness of inferiority by his nervous suspicion of plots and savage punishment of alleged traitors," writesA.H.M. Jones. But Jones admits that "he was a conscientious administrator, careful of the interests of the humble. Like his brother, he was an earnest Christian."[13] He diminished the oppressive burden of the taxes which had been instituted by Constantine and his sons, and was humbly deferential to his brother in the latter's edicts of reform, as the institution ofDefensors (a sort of substitute for the ancientTribunes, guardians of the lower classes).[14]
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