Its presentArabic nameJubayl (جبيل) orJ(e)beil is a direct descendant of these earlier names, although apparently modified by a misunderstanding of the name as thetriliteral rootGBL orJBL, meaning "mountain".When the Arabic form of the name is used, it is typically renderedJbeil,Jbail, orJbayl in English.[citation needed] All of these, along with Byblos, are etymologically related. During theCrusades, this name appeared in Western records asGibelet orGiblet. This name was used forByblos Castle andits associated lordship.[citation needed]
The Phoenician City, known to the Greeks asBýblos (Βύβλος) and to the Romans asByblus, was important for their import ofpapyrus out ofAncient Egypt[13] – to the extent that "byblos" came to mean "papyrus" in Greek. TheEnglish word "Bible", therefore, ultimately derives from the Greek name of the city,Βύβλος ('Βύblos / Byblos'), a Greek mumbo-jumble of גְּבָל ('Gāḇal / Gəbal Gobâl'..., that is, 'Gebal' or 'Jebel'), which shares the same root as גְּבוּל ('Gəḇūl / Gābūl, that is 'Gebul' or 'Jabul'), as they're derivatives of ג־ב־ל ('g-ḇ-l' / 'g-b-l' / 'g-v-l'), which means 'twist as a rope', '(be a, set) border' or 'bound(aria)', which tells us that it is a North Boundary of Canaan.[14][15][16][17][18][19]
Terracotta jug from Byblos (now in the Louvre), Late Bronze Age (1600–1200 BC)
Situated approximately 42 km (26 mi) north ofBeirut, Byblos holds a strong allure for archaeologists due to its accumulations of various strata resulting from countless centuries of human dwelling. The initial excavation was conducted byErnest Renan in 1860, documented in his work"Mission de Phénicie" (1865–1874). This was succeeded byPierre Montet's efforts from 1921 to 1924, and later byMaurice Dunand, who continued excavations from 1925 for a span of forty years.[20][21] Renan's expedition was to "provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos".[22]
Fragments attributed to the semi-legendary pre-HomericPhoenicianpriestSanchuniathon say Byblos was the first city erected inPhoenicia and was established by the godCronus.[23] (Cronus was considered the nearest equivalent to the CanaaniteBaal /Baal Hammon inthe syncretising system used by the ancient Greeks and Romans.) According to the writerPhilo of Byblos (quoting Sanchuniathon, and quoted inEusebius), Byblos was founded by the Phoenician shrine godEl (whom theGreeks identified with their godCronus). During the 3rd millennium BC, the first signs of a town can be observed, with the remains of well-built houses of uniform size. This was the period when theCanaanite civilization began to develop.[citation needed]
Neolithic remains of some buildings can be observed at the site.Jacques Cauvin published studies offlint tools from the stratified Neolithic andChalcolithic sites in 1962.[24] Remains of humans found in Chalcolithic burials have been published byHenri Victor Vallois in 1937.[25] Tombs from this era were discussed by EmirMaurice Chehab in 1950.[26] Early pottery found at the tell was published by E.S. Boynton in 1960 with further studies by R. Erich in 1954 and Van Liere andHenri de Contenson in 1964.[27][28][29]
Prehistoric settlements at Byblos were divided up by Dunand into the following five periods, which were recently expanded and re-calibrated byYosef Garfinkel to correlate withTell es-Sultan (Jericho):
Early Neolithic (early phase) corresponding to thePre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) of Jericho, represented by plastered floors andnaviforme technology, dated between 8800 and 7000 BC;
Early Chalcolithic corresponding to the Late Chalcolithic ofGhassulian, represented byjar burials, pierced flint, churn and a violin figurine, dated to between 4500 and 3600 BC and,
The site first appears to have been settled during thePre-Pottery Neolithic B period, approximately 8800 to 7000 BC[1][30] (Durand's Early Neolithic).
Early Neolithic Byblos was a later settlement than others in theBeqaa Valley such asLabweh andArd Tlaili. It was located on the seaward slope of the larger of the two hills that used to compose ancient Byblos, with a watered valley in between.[31]
Dark faced burnished ware pottery fromShir, inSyria
The original site spread down into the valley and covered an area of 1.2 ha (3.0 acres) providing fertile soils and a protected landing place for boats. Dunand discovered around twenty houses although some of the settlement was suggested to have been lost to the sea, robbed or destroyed.[21][32][33][34][35][36][37] Dwellings were rectangular with plastered floors,pottery was usuallyDark faced burnished ware with some shell impressions.[38]
The Middle Neolithic was a smaller settlement of no more than 0.15 ha (0.37 acres) adjacent to the older site. The pottery was more developed with red washes and more varied forms and elaborate decorations, buildings were poorer with unplastered floors.[citation needed]
The Late Neolithic period showed development from the middle in building design, a wider range of more developed flint tools and a far larger variety of pottery with fabrication including silica. The Late Chalcolithic featured developments of "Canaanite blades" and fan scrapers. Adult burials in jars started to appear along with metal in the form of onecopper hook, found in a jar. Some jars were lined with white plaster that was applied and self-hardened after firing.[39] Copper appeared more frequently in the Late Chalcolithic period along with multiple burials in tombs and jar handles with impressed signs.[27]
According toLorenzo Nigro, Byblos moved from being a fishermen's village to its earlier urban form at the beginning of the third millennium BC.[40] Early Bronze Age remains were characterised by the development ofByblos combed ware and a lithic assemblage studied by Jacques Cauvin.[31][41]
Watson Mills and Roger Bullard suggest that during theOld Kingdom of Egypt andMiddle Kingdom of Egypt Byblos was virtually an Egyptian colony.[20] The growing city was a wealthy one and seems to have been an ally (among "those who are on his waters") ofEgypt for many centuries.First Dynasty tombs used timbers from Byblos. One of the oldest Egyptian words for an oceangoing boat was "Byblos ship". Archaeologists have recoveredEgyptian-made artifacts as old as a vessel fragment bearing the name of theSecond dynasty rulerKhasekhemwy, although this "may easily have reached Byblos through trade and/or at a later period".[42]
The rulers of Byblos maintained close relationships with the New Kingdom pharaohs of Ancient Egypt.[citation needed]
Around 1350 BC, theAmarna letters include 60 letters fromRib-Hadda and his successorIli-Rapih who were rulers of Byblos, writing to the Egyptian government. This is mainly due to Rib-Hadda's constant pleas for military assistance fromAkhenaten. They also deal with the conquest of neighbouring city-states by theHabiru.[citation needed]
It appears Egyptian contact peaked during the19th dynasty, only to decline during the20th and21st dynasties. In addition, when theNew Kingdom collapsed in the 11th century BC, Byblos ceased being a colony and became the foremost city of Phoenicia.[44] Although the archaeological evidence seems to indicate a brief resurgence during the22nd and23rd dynasties, it is clear after theThird Intermediate Period the Egyptians started favouringTyre andSidon instead of Byblos.[45]
Traditional Lebanese house overlooking the Mediterranean sea, Byblos. This house is within the antiquities complex and illustrates the modern ground level concerning excavations
In theAchaemenid Empire (538–332 BC), Byblos was the fourth of four Phoenician vassal kingdoms established by the Persians; the first three beingSidon,Tyr, andArwad.[citation needed]
During theGreco-Roman period, the temple ofResheph was elaborately rebuilt, and the city, though smaller than its neighbours such as Tyrus and Zidonia, was a centre for the cult ofAdonis.[citation needed]
KingHerod ofJudaea, known for his extensive building projects, including beyond his own kingdom, constructed a city wall for Byblos.[46]
In the 3rd century, a small but impressivetheatre was constructed. With the rise ofChristianity, abishopric was established in Byblos, and the town grew rapidly. Although aSasanian colony is known to have been established in the region following theearly Muslim conquests of 636, there is little archaeological evidence for it. Trade withEurope effectively dried up, and it was not until the coming of theFirst Crusade in 1098 that prosperity returned to Byblos, known then as Gibelet or Giblet.[citation needed]
The Embriaco family's residence, theByblos Castle, along with the fortified town, served as an important military base for the Crusaders. The remains of the castle are among the most impressive architectural structures now visible in the town centre. The town was taken bySaladin in 1187, re-taken by the Crusaders, and conquered byBaibars in 1266, but it remained in the possession of the Embriacos until around 1300.[citation needed]
Having voluntarily surrendered to the Mamluks, the city was relatively spared from looting following its capture.[48] Its fortifications were subsequently restored byBaybars.[49] From 1516 until 1918, the town and the whole region became part of theOttoman Empire.[citation needed]
Byblos and all of Lebanon were placed underFrench Mandate from 1920 until 1943 when Lebanon achieved independence. The2006 Lebanon War negatively affected the ancient city by covering its harbour and town walls with an oil slick that was the result of an oil spill from a nearby power plant.[50]
Byblos's inhabitants are significantly Christian, mostlyMaronite, with minorities ofArmenian Apostolic,Greek Orthodox, andGreek Catholics. There is also a minority ofShia andSunni Muslims. It is said that the predominantly Shi`i city ofBint Jbeil ("Daughter of Byblos") in Southern Lebanon was founded by Shi`a migrants from Byblos. Byblos has three representatives in theParliament of Lebanon: two Maronites and one Shi`i Muslim.[52][53]
Byblos is home to the professional schools of theLebanese American University (LAU). The LAU Byblos Campus houses the Medical School, the Engineering School, the School of Architecture and Design, the Pharmacy School, which offers the only Pharm.D. Program outside the United States accredited by theAccreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE),[54] the School of Business, and the School of Arts and Sciences.
Byblos is re-emerging as an upscale touristic hub.[55] With its ancientport,Phoenician, Roman, and Crusader ruins, sandy beaches and the picturesque mountains that surround it make it an ideal tourist destination. The city is known for its fish restaurants, open-air bars, and outdoor cafes. Yachts cruise into its harbor today as they did in the 1960s and 1970s whenMarlon Brando andFrank Sinatra were regular visitors to the city.[55] Byblos was crowned as the "Arab Tour Capital" for the year 2016 by the Lebanese minister of tourism in theGrand Serail inBeirut. Byblos was chosen byCondé Nast Traveler as the second best city in theMiddle East for 2012, beatingTel Aviv andDubai,[56] and by theWorld Tourism Organization as the best Arabtourist city for 2013.[57]
Ain el-Malik orKing's Spring, about 20 m deep, is a large cavity accessible by spiral stairs. Once it supplied the city with water.[58] According toPlutarch's version of the EgyptianOsiris myth, the king's servants metIsis on the stairs of the spring and took her to the royal palace, where she found the body of her husbandOsiris embedded in one of the palace pillars.[59]
The Byblos Fossil Museum has a collection of fossilised fish, sharks, eel, flying fish, and other marine life, some of which are millions of years old.
Medieval city wall
The old medieval part of Byblos is surrounded by walls running about 270m from east to west and 200m from north to south.
Work on the church started during the Crusades in 1115. It was considered a cathedral and was partially destroyed during an earthquake in AD 1170. It was later given to the Maronite bishop as a gift by PrinceYusuf Shihab.[60]
Sultan Abduljid Mosque
The old mosque by the Castle dates back to theMamluk period, and adopted the name of SultanAbdulmejid I after he renovated it.
Historic Quarter and Souks
In the southeast section of the historic city, near the entrance of the archaeological site, is an old market.
^abDumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E.; Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (2006).Cities of the Middle East and North Africa. ABC-CLIO. p. 104.ISBN1-57607-919-8. Retrieved22 July 2009.Archaeological excavations at Byblos indicate that the site has been continually inhabited since at least 5000 B.C.
^Lorenzo Nigro (2007)."Aside the spring: Byblos and Jericho from village to town". In Nigro, Lorenzo (ed.).Byblos and Jericho in the early bronze I : social dynamics and cultural interactions : proceedings of the international workshop held in Rome on March 6th 2007 by Rome "La Sapienza" University. Università di Roma "La Sapienza". p. 35.ISBN978-88-88438-06-1.Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved17 February 2017.
[Original French]: "D’abord, le site de Byblos était fixé sans conteste possible. Le passage où Strabon définit Byblos une ville située sur une colline à quelque distance de la nier, avait égaré les savants. Renan lui-même avait songé à Qassouba, mais il comprit vite que cette colline était trop peu importante pour avoir été le siège d’une ville telle que Byblos. L’abondance des fragments antiques recueillis aux environs de la citadelle, la situation des nécropoles au nord et au sud de l’enceinte franque prouvent jusqu'à l’évidence que la ville ne s’est pas déplacée et que Gebeil recouvre Byblos."
[English translation]: "First, the site of Byblos was fixed without question possible. The passage where Strabon defines Byblos as a city situated on a hill some distance away from it, had misled the scientists. Renan himself had thought of Qassouba, but he soon realised that this hill was too small to have been the seat of a city such as Byblos. The abundance of ancient fragments collected around the citadel, the situation of the necropolises to the north and south of the Frankish enclosure provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos."
^Cauvin, Jacques., Les industries lithiques du tell de Byblos (Liban), L'Anthropologie, vol. 66, 5–6, 1962.
^Vallois, H.V., Note sur les ossements humains de la nécropole énéolithique de Byblos (avec 2 planches).Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome I, 1937. Beyrouth.
^Chehab, Emir M., Tombes des chefs d'époque énéolithique trouvés à Byblos,Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth.
^Erich, R., Relative chronologies in Old World Archaeology, Chicago, 1954.
^Van Liere, W. and Contenson, Henri de, "Holocene Environment and Early Settlement in the Levant",Annales archéologiques de Syrie, volume 14, pp. 125–128, 1964.
^Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1948, 1949,Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth.
^Dunand, Maurice., Fouilles de Byblos, vol II, Atlas, Paris, 1950d (also part I, 1954 – part II, 1958).
^Dunand, Maurice., Chronologie des plus anciennes installations de Byblos, Revue Biblique, vol. 57, 1950b.
^Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1950, 1951 & 1952,Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XII, 1955, Beyrouth.
^Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1954, 1955,Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XIII, 1956, Beyrouth.
^Fleisch, Henri., Préhistoire au Liban en 1950, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Français, vol. 48, 1–2, p. 26. (Contains report on Byblos presented by Maurice Dunand to the 3rd C.I.S.E.A., Brussels, 1948), 1951.
^Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1960, 1961 & 1962,Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XVII, 1964, Beyrouth.
^Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1957, 1958 & 1959,Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XVI, 1961, Beyrouth.
^Lorenzo Nigro (2007)."Aside the spring: Byblos and Jericho from village to town". In Nigro, Lorenzo (ed.).Byblos and Jericho in the early bronze I : social dynamics and cultural interactions : proceedings of the international workshop held in Rome on March 6th 2007 by Rome "La Sapienza" University. Università di Roma "La Sapienza". p. 35.ISBN978-88-88438-06-1. Retrieved17 February 2017.
^Fleisch, Henri., Néolithique du Proche-Orient, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Français, vol. 49, 5–6, p. 212. (Contains report on Byblos excavations of 1951 by Maurice Dunand), 1952.
^Wilkinson, Toby, 1999,Early Dynastic Egypt p. 78.
^Shaw, Ian: "The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt", page 321. Oxford University Press, 2000.ISBN978-0-19-280458-7
^Rogers, Guy MacLean (2021).For the Freedom of Zion: the Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66-74 CE. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 21–22, 535.ISBN978-0-300-24813-5.
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Elayi, Josette; Elayi, A. G. (2014).A Monetary and Political History of the Phoenician City of Byblos: In the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C.E. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.ISBN978-1575063041.
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