Kingdom of Butua Butua | |||||||||||
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| c. 1425–c. 1683 | |||||||||||
| Capital | Khami | ||||||||||
| Common languages | iKalanga | ||||||||||
| Religion | Belief inMwari | ||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||
| Mambo | |||||||||||
• c. 1425–? | Madabhale | ||||||||||
• ?–c. 1683 | Madhladhla | ||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||
• Established | c. 1425 | ||||||||||
• Conquest by Rozwi Empire | c. 1683 | ||||||||||
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| History ofZimbabwe | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Ancient history
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White settlement pre-1923
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TheKingdom of Butua orButwa (c. 1425–c. 1683) was aKalanga (westernShona) kingdom located in what is now southwesternZimbabwe. Butua was renowned as the source of gold forArab andPortuguese traders. The first written record of the kingdom came fromAhmad ibn Majid in 1502.
The kingdom was governed by theTorwa dynasty until 1683 from its capital atKhami. Around 1683, the kingdom was conquered by theRozwi Empire.
Khami was originally aLeopard's Kopje site, whose inhabitants are thought to be the ancestors of theKalanga (southwesternShona). During the time ofGreat Zimbabwe's dominance over the region, various offshoots split from it to form various states, one such state being theMutapa Empire.[a] In the early-15th centuryAngoche traders opened a new route along theZambezi via the nascent Mutapa Empire andIngombe Ilede to reach the goldfields west of Great Zimbabwe, bypassing it. Close to the goldfields, a local Leopard's Kopje chiefdom centred onKhami rose to prominence, contributing to Great Zimbabwe's decline. This was the Kingdom of Butua, with its firstmambo (king) Madabhale of the Torwa dynasty, who had thepraise nameChibundule (meaning "sounding of the war horn"). Kalangaoral traditions collected in 1922 compress the history of the Torwa dynasty into that of one ruler called Chibundule, such that the story of Chibundule represents that of Butua.[b][c][1]: 50–1
Jannie Loubser writes that some Butua chiefs andheadmen likely moved south of theLimpopo River to exploit gold, copper, and ivory reserves there.[3] Butua rapidly grew in size and wealth, and came to border the Mutapa Empire along theSanyati River.[d][4] There appear to have been intermarriages between the Torwa dynasty and the Nembire dynasty of Mutapa.Changamire I, who rebelled against and ruled Mutapa from 1490–1494, was likely a member of both dynasties,[2] and was possibly supported by the Torwa. In 1493, themambo gifted theMwenemutapa (Mutapa king) 4000 cows and copious amounts of gold. The first written record of Butua came fromAhmad ibn Majid in 1502, who mentioned "Munhu Butua" ("King of Butua"). Due to tales such as that already mentioned, the Portuguese referred to Butua as the "Mother of Gold". The Portuguese traded far into the interior via African merchants, who were noted for their honesty. The Kalanga of Butua were reportedly not war-like (said to rely more on faith inMwari), and themambo only mobilised his army in times of war. Women accompanied the army and cooked for them.[1]: 49, 53–4
In the 1640s, a dispute between themambo and his brother escalated. The brother had married into a powerful family of Shona-speaking Muslim traders (calledMwenye), and with theMwenye's support he forced themambo into exile inManyika. With the support of a Portugueseprazo-holder and his army, themambo returned in 1644 and was reinstated. Theprazo-holder left soldiers behind in the capital, however he was killed on the way to Manyika, after which the soldiers withdrew. HistorianMalyin Newitt writes that Butua was too remote for Portuguese influence to last,[4] however the episode bolstered Portuguese confidence that they could expand into the interior and conquer Mutapa.[1]: 54
Around 1683 Butua was conquered byChangamire Dombo, who is thought to have either been head of the Mwenemutapa's royal cattle herd, which he used to gain influence, or the leader of Mutapa's army, dispatched to Rozvi[e] territory (the northeast) where he became leader of the Rozvi and rebelled. In the northeast, a European-introduced epidemic and famine had swept through the region, and there was likely anger about the Mwenemutapa selling gold-producing land to the Portuguese asprazos, dispossessing Karanga families. The Portuguese also dealt directly with chiefs' subjects, disrupting the hierarchical system, with this all propelling Rozvi out-migration. The Portuguese's withdrawal from Butua had likely left the Torwamambo with little support, possibly compounded by his failure tobring rain amid a drought.[1]: 54–6
Rozvi traditions mention two rulers or royal lineages in Butua, 'Chibundule' and 'Tumbare'. Kalanga traditions' only mention of Tumbare is as Chief Councillor for Changamire, however they also say that Tumbare's father tried to take control of Butua three times. Catrien Van Waarden considers the Tumbare lineage to have aided Changamire in his conquest. Kalanga traditions detail a large battle taking place, ending in Chibundule's defeat, after which he is said to have left for the Matombo a Bhuba mountains and disappeared. Certainly by his death in 1696, Changamire controlled all of Butua's territory.[1]: 54–8 Changamire founded theRozvi Empire with its capital atDanamombe, and used Butua as his base to expand into Manyika andUteve in the 1680s, defeating the Portuguese and expelling Portuguese traders.[5]: 657 He also attacked Mutapa in 1693, leading to the overthrow of its ruler. Some of the original inhabitants of Butua (now called the Lilima, a Kalanga sub-group) migrated into north-eastern Botswana.[1]: 60–1, 68
Changamire's dynasty continued to rule in Butua at Danamombe, until it was destroyed during the 1830s amid theNgoni invasions.[4]
Themambo had various Councillors (bakadzaxa ormakulukota, one of which was head of the royal herds of cattle), minor councillors (basungwaxa), and royal advisors (machinda). He also had a Great Diviner (ng'anga), one of their tasks wasrainmaking. Roles were likely hereditary. Themambo had multiple residences for security reasons, with oral traditions mentioning five in and around theMatopos Hills. Cattle played an important role in politics, and themambo owned many. The government's tribute was collected by sub-chiefs from their people, and gifts were likely distributed, often in the form ofloans of cattle.[1]: 52
According toRozvi traditions the Torwa dynasty had the totem of the monkey. Traditions collected in 1922 claim the kingdom covered the territory from Great Zimbabwe to theMakgadikgadi Pan, south to theCrocodile River, and north to theZambezi, however other traditions say themambo ruled fromGweru to theMotloutse River.[1]: 51
Scholars such asThomas Huffman andInnocent Pikirayi have argued that Khami's society washierarchical, howeverChirikure et al. say that it washeterarchical and without hierarchical control overproduction, wherein class and status were dynamic and based on local contexts.[6] Ceremonies were held at Khami where people prayed toMwari for rain. Men sought to marry many wives and have as many children as possible. Produce, skins, and copper could be used to buy cattle and goats, which could then be used to acquire wives. Women sewed skins and furs into blankets, and copper was mined to make jewellery. Gold was mined in people's spare time, usually before planting season. Having a large amount of cattle symbolised high status, and were sought after in order to enlarge one's family.[1]: 53–4 Jewellery was made from gold, bronze, copper, and iron, and was likely common.[6]
Khami features monumental stone structures, which likely symbolised prestige, with reports that the stones were brought to Khami and laboured on as tribute (a service calledzhunde). Khami's royal palace resemblesLeopard's Kopje architecture (specificallyWoolandale).[1]: 50, 54 At the centre of Khami was the Hill Complex.Terraced stone walls were decorated and formed platforms upon which earthen (dhaka) houses were built. Pikirayi has suggested that the existence of many of these platforms may be explained by Shona succession practices wherein successor kings continued to reside in their home, which became the capital's centre, rather than move to their predecessor's abode, although the prestige of the Hill Complex suggests some kings may have moved there and elites may have made their own platforms. Chirikure et al. have argued that the platforms were centres for familial lineages, supported by the platforms being as far as 3 km (1.9 mi) from Khami's centre. They also say thatnhimbe (Shonacommunal work) could have contributed to their construction.[6]
After Changamire's conquest of Butua, theRozvi did not allow the Portuguese to enter its territory, however they allowed African merchants hired by the Portuguese, termedmussambazes, to trade in Butua.[4]
Cattle were abundant in Butua, and were an important component of its economy. Cattle were also likely used forloans (a practice calledkusaidza). The person who received the loan (kuronzera) could use the cattle as they saw fit and sell its produce, however they could not dispose of them without the owner's permission. The relationship between owner andkuronzera resembled one of vassalage, and served to distribute food and wealth, with themambo owning most cattle. Despite Butua's fame for gold, Portuguese reports claimed that its people had little interest in gold mining, and focussed primarily on cattle.[1]: 53 Regarding agriculture,sorghum andfinger millet were favoured due to low rainfall.[7]
Butua benefited from controlling the gold trade to its southwest, and in the kingdom gold, copper, tin, and iron were mined.[7]Chirikure et al. have suggested that production was controlled at the household level.[6]Smelting and tool manufacturing were also undertaken, along with cottonspinning,weaving, and hunting. Those hunted includedwildebeest,buffalo,impala,sable antelope,kudu, andhartebeest, as well as elephants for ivory. Jewellery and ornaments were commonly produced. Gold, ivory, and animal skins were exported into the Indian Ocean trade, while glass beads, porcelain, and silver were imported.[7]
