Bushmeat ismeat fromwildlifehunted for human consumption, specifically in parts ofAfrica,Asia, andSouth America. Bushmeat is commonly harvested through unregulated or subsistence hunting practices. Bushmeat often consists of local smallmammals in an area, such asprimates,bats, androdents, but can also refer to smallbirds andreptiles.
In apublic health context, bushmeat is of concern due to its association with thetransmission ofzoonotic diseases such asEbola andHIV, as well as other emerging infectious diseases linked to the handling, butchering, and consumption of wild animals.[1][2][3] Bushmeat represents a primary source of animalprotein and a cash-earning commodity in poor and rural communities of humidtropical forest regions of the world.[4][5]
The term 'bushmeat' is originally anAfrican term for wildlife species that are hunted for human consumption,[5] and usually refers specifically to the meat of African wildlife.[9]In October 2000, theIUCN World Conservation Congress passed a resolution on the unsustainable commercial trade inwild meat. Affected countries were urged to recognize the increasing ramifications of the bushmeat trade, to strengthen and enforce legislation, and to develop action programmes to mitigate the consequences of the trade. Donor organisations were requested to provide funding for the implementation of such programmes.[10]
Wildlifehunting for food is important for the livelihood security of and supply ofdietary protein for poor people. It can be sustainable when carried out by traditionalhunter-gatherers in large landscapes for their own consumption. Due to the extent of bushmeat hunting fortrade in markets, the survival of those species that are large-bodied and reproduce slowly is threatened. The termbushmeat crisis was coined in 2007 and refers to this dual threat of depleting food resources and wildlifeextinctions, both entailed by the bushmeat trade.[5]
Globally, more than 1,000 animal species are estimated to be affected by hunting for bushmeat.[4]Bushmeat hunters use mostly leg-holdsnare traps to catch any wildlife, but prefer to kill large species, as these provide a greater amount of meat.[11]
The volume of the bushmeat trade inWest andCentral Africa was estimated at 1–5 million tonnes (980,000–4,920,000 long tons; 1,100,000–5,500,000 short tons) per year at the turn of the 21st century.[12] In 2002, it was estimated that species weighing more than 10 kg (22 lb) contribute 177.7 ± 358.4 kg/km2 (1,015 ± 2,046 lb/sq mi) of meat per year to the bushmeat extracted in theCongo Basin, based on 24 individuals. Species weighingless than 10 kg (22 lb) were estimated to contribute 35.4 ± 72.2 kg/km2 (202 ± 412 lb/sq mi), also based on 24 individuals. Bushmeat extraction in theAmazon rainforest was estimated to be much lower, at 3.69 ± 3.9 kg/km2 (21.1 ± 22.3 lb/sq mi) in the case of species weighing more than 10 kg and 0.6 ± 0.9 kg/km2 (3.4 ± 5.1 lb/sq mi) in the case of species weighing less than 10 kg, based on 3 individuals.[13][better source needed]Based on these estimates, a total of 2,200,000 t (2,200,000 long tons; 2,400,000 short tons) bushmeat is extracted in the Congo Basin per year.[14]
The 301 mammal species threatened by hunting for bushmeat comprise 126 primates, 65 even-toed ungulates, 27 bats, 26 diprotodont marsupials, 21 rodents, 12 carnivores and allpangolin species.[8]
Agorilla in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2008
Between 1983 and 2002, theGabon populations ofwestern gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) andcommon chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) were estimated to have declined by 56%. This decline was primarily caused by the commercial hunting, which was facilitated by the extended infrastructure forlogging purposes.[15]Marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus) andlong-nosed mongoose (Herpestes naso) are the most numerous small carnivores offered in rural bushmeat markets in the country.[16]
Logging concessions operated by companies in African forests have been closely linked to the bushmeat trade. Because they provide roads, trucks and other access to remote forests, they are the primary means for the transportation of hunters and meat between forests and urban centres. Some, including the Congolaise Industrielle du Bois (CIB) in theRepublic of Congo, partnered with governments and international conservation organizations to regulate the bushmeat trade within the concessions where they operate. Numerous solutions are needed; because each country has different circumstances, traditions and laws, no one solution will work in every location.[20]
Bushmeat can be an important source ofmicronutrients andmacronutrients. A study of South Americans in theTres Fronteras region found that those who consumed bushmeat were at a lower risk ofanemia and chronic health conditions, as their diets included moreiron,zinc, andvitamin C than those who did not eat bushmeat.[21]
InGhana, internationalillegal over-exploitation of Africanfishing grounds has increased demand for bushmeat. BothEuropean Union-subsidized fleets and local commercial fleets have depleted fish stocks, leaving local people to supplement their diets with animals hunted from nature reserves. Over 30 years of data link sharp declines in both mammal populations and the biomass of 41 wildlife species with a decreased supply of fish.[22]Consumption of fish and of bushmeat is correlated: the decline of one resource drives up the demand and price for the other.[4]
Outbreaks of the Ebola virus in theCongo Basin and inGabon in the 1990s have been associated with the butchering and consumption ofchimpanzees andbonobos.[1] Bushmeat hunters in Central Africa infected with thehuman T-lymphotropic virus were closely exposed to wild primates.[25]Anthrax can be transmitted when butchering and eating ungulates. The risk ofbloodborne diseases to be transmitted is higher when butchering a carcass than when transporting, cooking and eating it.[26]
Many hunters and traders are not aware ofzoonosis and the risks of disease transmissions.[27]An interview survey in rural communities in Nigeria revealed that 55% of the respondents knew ofzoonoses, but their education and cultural traditions are important drivers for hunting and eating bushmeat despite the risks involved.[28]
Results of research on wild chimpanzees in Cameroon indicate that they are naturally infected with thesimian foamy virus and constitute a reservoir of HIV-1, a precursor of theacquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) inhumans.[29] There are several distinct strains of HIV, indicating that this cross-species transfer has occurred several times.[30]Simian immunodeficiency virus present in chimpanzees is reportedly derived from older strains of the virus present in thecollared mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus) and the putty-nosed monkey. It is likely that HIV was initially transferred to humans after having come into contact with infected bushmeat.[31]
The natural reservoirs of ebolaviruses are unknown.[32][33][34] Possible reservoirs include non-humanprimates,[32]megabats, rodents, shrews, carnivores, and ungulates.[35]Between October 2001 and December 2003, five Ebola virus outbreaks occurred in the border area between Gabon and Republic of Congo. Autopsies of wildlife carcasses showed that chimpanzees, gorillas and bay duikers were infected with the virus.[36]The Ebola virus has been linked to bushmeat, with some researchers hypothesizing that megabats are a primary host of at least some variants of Ebola virus. Between the first recorded outbreak in 1976 and the largest in 2014, the virus hastransferred from animals to humans only 30 times, despite large numbers of bats being killed and sold each year. Bats drop partially eaten fruits and pulp, then terrestrial mammals such as gorillas and duikers feed on these fruits. This chain of events forms a possible indirect means of transmission from the natural host to animal populations.[37]The suspectedindex case for theEbola virus epidemic in West Africa in 2014 was a two-year-old boy inMeliandou in south-eastern Guinea, who played in a hollow tree harbouring a colony ofAngolan free-tailed bats (Mops condylurus).[38]
Results of a study conducted during the Ebola crisis in Liberia showed that socio-economic conditions affected bushmeat consumption. During the crisis, there was a decrease in bushmeat consumption and daily meal frequency. In addition, preferences for bushmeat species stayed the same.[39]
Suggestions for reducing or halting bushmeat harvest and trade include:[42]
increase access of consumers to affordable and reliable alternative sources of animal protein such aschicken, smalllivestock andfarmed fish raised at family level;
devolve rights and authority over wildlife to local communities;
As an alternative to bushmeat,captive breeding of species traditionally harvested from the wild is sometimes feasible. Captive breeding efforts must be closely monitored, as there is risk they can be used tolaunder and legitimize individuals captured from the wild, similar to the laundering of wildgreen tree pythons in Indonesia for the pet trade.[21]
^Karesh, W. B. & Noble, E. (2009). "The bushmeat trade: Increased opportunities for transmission of zoonotic disease".Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine: A Journal of Translational and Personalized Medicine.76 (5):429–444.doi:10.1002/msj.20139.PMID19787649.
^abcNasi, R.; Brown, D.; Wilkie, D.; Bennett, E.; Tutin, C.; Van Tol, G. & Christophersen, T. (2008).Conservation and use of wildlife-based resources: the bushmeat crisis(PDF). CBD Technical Series no. 33. Montreal and Bogor: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR). pp. 1–50.
^Mainka, S.; Trivedi, M., eds. (2002)."IUCN Resolution 2.64: The unsustainable commercial trade in wild meat".Links Between Biodiversity Conservation, Livelihoods and Food Security: The Sustainable Use of Wild Species for Meat. Occasional papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. pp. 5–6.ISBN978-2-8317-0638-2.
^Bahaa-el-din, L.; Henschel, P.; Aba'a, R.; Abernethy, K.; Bohm, T.; Bout, N.; Coad, L.; Head, J.; Inoue, E.; Lahm, S.; Lee, M. E.; Maisels, F.; Rabanal, L.; Starkey, M.; Taylor, G.; Vanthomme, A.; Nakashima, Y.; Hunter, L. (2013). "Notes on the distribution and status of small carnivores in Gabon".Small Carnivore Conservation (48):19–29.
^Khodakevich, L.; Szczeniowski, M.; Manbu-ma-Disu; Jezek, Z.; Marennikova, S.; Nakano, J. & Messinger, D. (1987). "The role of squirrels in sustaining mpox virus transmission".Tropical and Geographical Medicine.39 (2):115–122.PMID2820094.
^Olivero, J.; Fa, J. E.; Real, R.; Farfán, M. Á.; Márquez, A. L.; Vargas, J. M.; Gonzalez, J. P.; Cunningham, A. A.; Nasi, R. (2017)."Mammalian biogeography and the Ebola virus in Africa"(PDF).Mammal Review.47 (1):24–37.Bibcode:2017MamRv..47...24O.doi:10.1111/mam.12074.We found published evidence from cases of serological and/or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) positivity of EVD in non- human mammal, or of EVD-linked mortality, in 28 mammal species: 10 primates, three rodents, one shrew, eight bats, one carnivore, and five ungulates
^Leroy, E.; Gonzalez, J. P. & Pourrut, X. (2007). "Ebolavirus and Other Filoviruses". In Childs, J. E.; Mackenzie, J. S. & Richt, J. A. (eds.).Wildlife and Emerging Zoonotic Diseases: The Biology, Circumstances and Consequences of Cross-Species Transmission. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 315. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 363–387.doi:10.1007/978-3-540-70962-6_15.ISBN978-3-540-70961-9.PMC7121322.PMID17848072.
^Saéz, A. M.; Weiss, S.; Nowak, K.; Lapeyre, V.; Zimmermann, F.; Düx, A.; Kühl, H. S.; Kaba, M.; Regnaut, S.; Merkel, K.; Sachse, A.; Thiesen, U.; Villányi, L.; Boesch, C.; Dabrowski, P. W.; Radonić, A.; Nitsche, A.; Leendertz, S. A. J.; Petterson, S.; Becker, S.; Krähling, V.; Couacy-Hymann, E.; Akoua-Koffi, C.; Weber, N.; Schaade, L.; Fahr, J.; Borchert, M.; Gogarten, J. F.; Calvignac-Spencer, S. & Leendertz, F. H. (2014)."Investigating the zoonotic origin of the West African Ebola epidemic".EMBO Molecular Medicine.7 (1):17–23.doi:10.15252/emmm.201404792.PMC4309665.PMID25550396.
^Pourrut, X.; Diffo, J. L. D.; Somo, R. M.; Bilong, C. B.; Delaporte, E.; LeBreton, M. & Gonzalez, J. P. (2011). "Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in primate bushmeat and pets in Cameroon".Veterinary Parasitology.175 (1–2):187–191.doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.09.023.PMID20970258.
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