| Burning of Washington | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theWar of 1812 | |||||||
 TheCapture of the City of Washington a portrait of the burning ofWashington, D.C., on August 24, 1814 | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
 United Kingdom |  United States | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| George CockburnRobert Ross | James MadisonJohn Armstrong | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 4,250[1] | 7,640 | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 30 killed[2] 6 wounded[3][failed verification] | 2–20 killed[4] 1 frigate destroyed 1 frigate scuttled 1 sloop scuttled | ||||||
  Washington Location within the District of Columbia | |||||||
TheBurning of Washington, also known as theCapture of Washington, was a successfulBritishamphibious attack conducted by Rear AdmiralGeorge Cockburn duringAdmiralJohn Warren'sChesapeake campaign. It was the only time since theAmerican Revolutionary War that a foreign power had captured and occupied aUnited States capital. Following the defeat of American forces at theBattle of Bladensburg on August 24, 1814, a British army led by Major-GeneralRobert Ross marched onWashington, D.C. That evening, British soldiers and sailors set fire to multiple public buildings, including thePresidential Mansion,United States Capitol, andWashington Navy Yard.[5][permanent dead link]
The attack was in part a retaliation for prior American actions in British-heldUpper Canada, in which U.S. forces hadburned and looted York the previous year and had thenburned large portions of Port Dover.[6] Less than four days after the attack began, a heavy thunderstorm, possibly ahurricane and atornado, extinguished the fires and caused further destruction. The British occupation of Washington, D.C. lasted for roughly 26 hours.[7]
PresidentJames Madison, along with his administration and several military officials, evacuated and found refuge for the night inBrookeville, a small town inMontgomery County, Maryland; Madison spent the night in the house ofCaleb Bentley, aQuaker who lived and worked in Brookeville. Bentley's house, known today as the Madison House, still exists.
The United Kingdom was already at war withFrance when the United States declared war in 1812. The war against France took up most of Britain's attention and military resources. The initial British strategy against the United States focused on imposing a naval blockade at sea, and maintaining a defensive stance on land. TheBritish Army could not reinforce Canada; instead, the government relied onmilitia units and indigenous allies to support the British Army units already posted in Canada.[8] With the defeat and exile ofNapoleon in April 1814, Britain was able to use its newly available troops and ships to prosecute its war with the United States. TheEarl of Bathurst, serving asSecretary of State for War and the Colonies, dispatched an army brigade and additional naval vessels to theimperial fortress of Bermuda, from where a blockade of the U.S. coast and even the occupation of some coastal islands had been overseen throughout the war. It was decided to use these forces in raids along the Atlantic seaboard to draw American forces away from Canada.[8]
The commanders were under strict orders not to carry out operations far inland, or to attempt to hold territory.[why?] Early in 1814, Vice-AdmiralAlexander Cochrane had been appointed commander-in-chief of theRoyal Navy'sNorth America and West Indies Station, controlling naval forces based at the newBermuda dockyard and theHalifax Naval Yard, which were used to blockade American ports throughout the war. He planned to carry the war into the United States, by attacks inVirginia and againstNew Orleans.[9] Rear-AdmiralGeorge Cockburn had commanded the squadron inChesapeake Bay since the previous year. On June 25, he wrote to Cochrane stressing that the defenses there were weak, and he felt that several major cities were vulnerable to attack.[10]
Cochrane suggested attackingBaltimore,Washington, D.C., andPhiladelphia. Rear Admiral Cockburn accurately predicted that "within a short period of time, with enough force, we could easily have at our mercy the capital".[11]
He recommended Washington, D.C. as the target, because of the comparative ease of attacking the national capital and "the greater political effect likely to result".[12] On July 18, Cochrane ordered Cockburn to "deter the enemy from a repetition of similar outrages ... You are hereby required and directed to destroy and lay waste such towns and districts as you may find assailable".[13] Cochrane further instructed, "You will spare merely the lives of the unarmed inhabitants of the United States".[13] Ross was less optimistic. He "never dreamt for one minute that an army of 3,500 men with 1,000 marines reinforcement, with no cavalry, hardly any artillery, could march 50 miles inland and capture an enemy capital", according to historian John McCavitt.[14] Ross refused to accept Cockburn's recommendation to burn the entire city. He spared nearly all of the privately owned properties.[15]
An added motive was retaliation for the "wanton destruction of private property along the north shores of Lake Erie" by American troops under Colonel John Campbell in May, the most notable being theRaid on Port Dover.[16] On June 2, SirGeorge Prevost,Governor General ofBritish North America, wrote to Cochrane atAdmiralty House, inBailey's Bay, Bermuda, calling for a retaliation against the American destruction of private property in violation of thelaws of war. Prévost argued that,
in consequence of the late disgraceful conduct of the American troops in the wanton destruction of private property on the north shores of Lake Erie, in order that if the war with the United States continues you may, should you judge it advisable, assist in inflicting that measure of retaliation which shall deter the enemy from a repetition of similar outrages.[16]
Many sources also suggest that the attack on Washington was motivated by revenge for the American looting ofYork in Upper Canada, the provincial capital,[6] after theBattle of York in April 1813. Earlier, the British had filed general complaints about the "wanton destruction" along the Niagara region and Lake Erie.[17] Major General Ross commanded the 4,500-man army in Washington, composed of the 1st Battalion, the4th (King's Own) Regiment of Foot, the21st (Royal North British Fusilier) Regiment of Foot, the 1st Battalion, the44th (East Essex) Regiment of Foot, the85th Regiment of Foot and a battalion ofRoyal Marines. This force defeated an American army at theBattle of Bladensburg.[18][19]
PresidentJames Madison, members of his government, and the military fled the city in the wake of the British victory at Bladensburg. They found refuge for the night inBrookeville, a small town inMontgomery County, Maryland, which is known today as the "United States' Capital for a Day". President Madison spent the night in the house ofCaleb Bentley, aQuaker who lived and worked as a silversmith in Brookeville. Bentley's house, known today as the Madison House, still stands in Brookeville.[20]
On August 24, 1814, the British, led by Ross and Cockburn, entered Washington with a force of 4,500 "battle hardened" men.[21][22] The plan to attack Washington had been formulated by Rear Admiral Cockburn, who predicted that "within a short period of time, with enough force, we could easily have at our mercy the capital".[23] Ross commanded the troops and was less optimistic.[14] While Cockburn recommended burning the entire city, Ross planned to damage only public buildings.[22][24]
Ross, who was described by historian John McCavitt as "an officer and a gentleman", initially planned for an orderly surrender of Washington. However, as he and his men entered the city under a flag of truce, American soldiers remaining in the city "treacherously" opened fire, wounding Ross' horse and killing two of his men. McCavitt argued that this led him to "reluctantly" order the burning of the White House and the Capitol building.[25]
TheUnited States Capitol was, according to some contemporary travelers, the only building in Washington "worthy to be noticed".[26] Thus, it was a prime target for the British, for both its aesthetic and its symbolic value. Upon arrival into the city viaMaryland Avenue, the British targeted the Capitol, first the southern wing, containing the House of Representatives, then the northern wing, containing the Senate.[27] Prior to setting it aflame, the British sacked the building, which at that time housed Congress, theLibrary of Congress, and theSupreme Court.
Items looted by troops led by Rear Admiral Cockburn included a ledger entitled "An account of the receipts and expenditures of the United States for the year 1810"; the admiral wrote on the inside leaf that it was "taken in President's room in the Capitol, at the destruction of that building by the British, on the capture of Washington, 24th August, 1814". He later gave it to his elder brotherSir James Cockburn, theGovernor of Bermuda. The book was returned to the Library of Congress in 1940.[28]
The British intended to burn the building to the ground. They set fire to the southern wing first. The flames grew so quickly that the British were prevented from collecting enough wood to burn the stone walls completely. However, the Library of Congress's contents in the northern wing contributed to the flames on that side.[29] Among the items destroyed was the 3,000-volume collection of the Library of Congress[30] and the intricate decorations of the neoclassical columns, pediments, and sculptures[31] designed byWilliam Thornton in 1793 andBenjamin Latrobe in 1803.[32]
The wooden ceilings and floors burned and the glass skylights melted from the intense heat.[29] The building was not a complete loss. The House rotunda, the east lobby, the staircases, and Latrobe's famous Corn-Cob Columns in the Senate entrance hall all survived.[29] The Superintendent of the Public Buildings of the City of Washington, Thomas Munroe, concluded that the loss to the Capitol amounted to $787,163.28 (equivalent to $11,806,200 in 2024), with $457,388.36 (equivalent to $6,860,099 in 2024) for the north wing and main building, and $329,774.92 (equivalent to $4,946,100 in 2024) for the south wing.[33]
After burning the Capitol, the British turned northwest upPennsylvania Avenue toward the White House. After U.S. government officials and President Madison fled the city,First LadyDolley Madison received a letter from her husband, urging her to be prepared to leave Washington at a moment's notice.[34] Dolley organized the enslaved and other staff to save valuables from the British.[35] James Madison's personal enslaved attendant, the fifteen-year-old boyPaul Jennings, was an eyewitness.[36] After later buying his freedom from the widow Dolley Madison, Jennings published his memoir in 1865, considered the first from the White House:
It has often been stated in print, that when Mrs. Madison escaped from the White House, she cut out from the frame thelarge portrait of Washington (now in one of the parlors there), and carried it off. She had no time for doing it. It would have required a ladder to get it down. All she carried off was the silver in herreticule, as the British were thought to be but a few squares off, and were expected any moment.[37]
Jennings said the people who saved the painting and removed the objects actually were:
John Susé (Jean Pierre Sioussat, the French door-keeper, and still living at the time of Jennings's memoir) and Magraw [McGraw], the President's gardener, took it down and sent it off on a wagon, with some large silver urns and such other valuables as could be hastily got hold of. When the British did arrive, they ate up the very dinner, and drank the wines, &c., that I had prepared for the President's party.[37][38][39]
The sappers and miners of theCorps of Royal Engineers under Captain Blanshard, who were employed in burning the government buildings, entered the White House. Blanshard reported that it seemed that Madison was so sure that the attacking force would be made prisoners of war that a handsome feast had been prepared. Blanshard and his sappers enjoyed it.[40]: 358 The soldiers then burned the president's house, and fuel was added to the fires that night to ensure they would continue burning into the next day.[22]
The day after the destruction of the White House, Rear Admiral Cockburn entered the building of the D.C. newspaper, theNational Intelligencer, intending to burn it down. However, several women persuaded him not to because they were afraid the fire would spread to their neighboring houses. Cockburn wanted to destroy the newspaper because its reporters had written so negatively about him, branding him the "Ruffian". Instead, he ordered his troops to tear the building down brick by brick, and ordered all the "C" type destroyed "so that the rascals can have no further means of abusing my name".[41]
The British sought out theUnited States Treasury in hopes of finding money or items of worth, but they found only old records.[30] They burned the United States Treasury and other public buildings. TheUnited States Department of War building was also burned. However, the War and State Department files had been removed, so the books and records had been saved; the only records of the War Department lost were recommendations of appointments for the Army and letters received from seven years earlier.[42] TheFirst U.S. Patent Office Building was saved by the efforts ofWilliam Thornton, the formerarchitect of the Capitol and then the superintendent of patents, who gained British cooperation to preserve it.[43][A] "When the smoke cleared from the dreadful attack, the Patent Office was the only Government building ... left untouched" in Washington.[44]
The Americans had already burned much of the historicWashington Navy Yard, founded by Thomas Jefferson, to prevent capture of stores and ammunition,[45] as well as the 44-gunfrigateUSSColumbia and the 22-gunUSSArgus, both new vessels nearing completion.[46] The Navy Yard'sLatrobe Gate, Quarters A, and Quarters B were the only buildings to escape destruction.[47][48] Also spared were theMarineBarracks and Commandant's House, although several private properties were damaged or destroyed.[49] In the afternoon of August 25, General Ross sent two hundred men to secure a fort on Greenleaf's Point. The fort, later known asFort McNair, had already been destroyed by the Americans, but 150 barrels of gunpowder remained. While the British were trying to dispose of them by dropping them into a well, the powder ignited. As many as thirty British soldiers were killed in the explosion, with several others injured.[50]
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Less than four days after the attack began, a sudden, very heavy thunderstorm—possibly ahurricane—put out the fires. It also spun off atornado that passed through the center of the capital, setting down onConstitution Avenue[7] and lifting two cannons before dropping them several yards away and killing British troops and American civilians alike.[51] Following the storm, the British troops returned to their ships, many of which were badly damaged. There is some debate regarding the effect of this storm on the occupation. While some assert that the storm forced the British to retreat,[7] historians have argued that their intention was only to destroy the city's government buildings, rather than occupy it for an extended period.[52] It is also clear that Ross never intended to damage private buildings as had been recommended by Cockburn and Cochrane.[24]
Whatever the case, the British occupation of Washington lasted only about 26 hours. Despite this, the "Storm that saved Washington", as it became known, did the opposite according to some. The rains sizzled and cracked the already charred walls of the White House and ripped away at structures the British had no plans to destroy (such as the Patent Office). The storm may have exacerbated an already dire situation for Washington D.C. An encounter was noted between Sir George Cockburn and a female resident of Washington. "Dear God! Is this the weather to which you are accustomed in this infernal country?" enquired the Admiral. "This is a special interposition of Providence to drive our enemies from our city", the woman allegedly called out to Cockburn. "Not so, Madam", Cockburn retorted. "It is rather to aid your enemies in the destruction of your city", before riding off on horseback.[53]
The Royal Navy reported that it lost one man killed and six wounded in the attack, of whom the fatality and three of the wounded were from the 6th West India Regiment of theCorps of Colonial Marines.[54] The destruction of the Capitol, including the Senate House and the House of Representatives, the Arsenal, Dockyard, Treasury, War Office, President's mansion, bridge over the Potomac, a frigate and a sloop together with allmateriel was estimated at £365,000 (equivalent to $5,474,421 in 2024).[40]: 359 A separate British forcecaptured Alexandria, Virginia, on the south side of thePotomac River, while Ross's troops were leaving Washington. The mayor of Alexandria made a deal and the British refrained from burning the town.[55] In 2013, an episode of the Weather Channel documentary seriesWhen Weather Changed History, entitled "The Thunderstorm That Saved D.C.", was devoted to these events.[citation needed]
President Madison and the military officers returned to Washington by September 1, on which date Madison issued a proclamation calling on citizens to defend the District of Columbia.[56] Congress did not return for three and a half weeks.[57] When they did so, they assembled inspecial session on September 19 in the Post and Patent Office building[58] at Blodgett's Hotel, one of the few buildings large enough to hold all members[59] to be spared.[60] Congress met in this building until December 1815, when construction of theOld Brick Capitol was complete.[61]
Most contemporary American observers, including newspapers representing anti-warFederalists, condemned the destruction of the public buildings as needless vandalism.[62] Many in the British public were shocked by the burning of the Capitol and other buildings at Washington. Such actions were denounced by most leaders of continental Europe, where capital cities had been repeatedly occupied in the course of theFrench Revolutionary andNapoleonic wars but always spared destruction, at least on the part of the occupiers—the famousburning of Moscow that occurred less than two years prior had been anact carried out by the defenders. According toThe Annual Register, the burning had "brought a heavy censure on the British character", with some members of Parliament, including the anti-establishment MPSamuel Whitbread,[62] joining in the criticism, declaring that the government was "making much of the taking of a few buildings in a non-strategic swamp, as though it had captured Paris".
In contrast, the majority of British public opinion perceived the burnings to be justified following the damage that the U.S. military had inflicted during its incursions into Canada. The British public also pointed to the United States's role in initiating the war, viewing the conflict as an Americanwar of aggression.[63] Several commentators regarded the damages as just revenge for the Americandestruction of the Parliament buildings and other public buildings inYork, the provincial capital ofUpper Canada, early in 1813. Sir George Prévost wrote that "as a just retribution, the proud capital at Washington has experienced a similar fate".[64] The ReverendJohn Strachan, who as Rector of York had witnessed the American acts there, wrote to Thomas Jefferson that the damage to Washington "was a small retaliation after redress had been refused for burnings and depredations, not only of public but private property, committed by them in Canada".[65] When they ultimately returned to Bermuda, the British forces took with them two pairs of portraits ofKing George III and his wife,Queen Charlotte, which had been discovered in one of the public buildings. One pair currently hangs in theHouse of Assembly of theParliament of Bermuda, and the other in the Cabinet Building, both in the city ofHamilton.[66][67][68]
There was a movement in Congress to relocate the capital after the burning. Congressmen from the north pushed for relocation to Philadelphia or some other prominent northern city, while Southern congressmen claimed that moving the capital would degrade the American sense of dignity and strength (however, many Southern congressmen simply did not want to move the capital north of theMason–Dixon line).[69] On September 21, the House of Representatives voted to strike down a proposal to relocate the capital from Washington, D.C. by a margin of 83 to 54.[70]
On February 3, 1815, in an effort to guarantee that the federal government would always remain in the area, Washington property owners funded the building of the Old Brick Capitol,[71] a larger meeting space where the Supreme Court now stands.[72] Construction of the Old Brick Capitol cost $25,000 (equivalent to $429,500 in 2024) and was funded primarily through the sale of stocks. The largest donor was Daniel Carroll of Duddington, a rich English property owner in the area.[73] Construction began on July 4, and concluded in December. Congress met in the Old Brick Capitol between December 1815 and December 1819, when the Capitol reopened.[74]
The Capitol reconstruction took much longer than anticipated. The Old Brick Capitol took only five months to complete, but the Capitol took twelve years.[32] A committee appointed by Congress to investigate the damage to the district concluded that it was cheaper to rebuild the already existing and damaged buildings than to build an entirely new one.[75] On February 13, President Madison and Congress passed legislation to borrow $500,000 to repair the public buildings, including the Capitol, "on their present sites in the city of Washington".[76]Benjamin Latrobe, architect of the Capitol who took over forWilliam Thornton in 1803, was rehired to repair the building on April 18.[77] He immediately requested 60,000 feet (18,288 m) of boards, 500 tons of stone, 1,000 barrels of lime, and brick.[77]
With the $500,000 borrowed from Washington banks,[74] Latrobe was able to rebuild the two wings and the central dome before being fired in 1817 over budgetary conflicts.[78]Charles Bulfinch took over and completed the renovations by 1826.[32] Bulfinch modified Latrobe's design by increasing the height of the Capitol dome to match the diameter of 86 ft (26.2 m). With the reconstruction of the public buildings in Washington, the value of land in the area increased dramatically, paving the way for the expansion of the city that developed in the years leading up to theAmerican Civil War.[79]
In 2009, PresidentBarack Obama held a ceremony at the White House to honor the Madisons' slave Paul Jennings as a representative of staff action to save theGilbert Stuart painting and other valuables. (The painting that was saved was a copy Stuart made of the painting, not the original,[80] although it is the same one on display in theEast Room.) "A dozen descendants of Jennings came to Washington, to visit the White House. They looked at the painting their relative helped save."[81] In an interview with National Public Radio, Jennings' great-great-grandson, Hugh Alexander, said, "We were able to take a family portrait in front of the painting, which was for me one of the high points."[36] He confirmed that Jennings later purchased his freedom from the widowed Dolley Madison.[36]
During heatedfree trade negotiations in 2018, Canadian Prime MinisterJustin Trudeau asked PresidentDonald Trump how the United States could justify protective tariffs as a national security issue. Trump retorted, "Didn't you guys burn down the White House?"[82]
Lydia Sigourney reflects on this event in her poem "The Conflagration at Washington", written under her maiden name, Lydia Huntley, in her first collection of poetry of 1815.Bob Dylan references this event in his song "Narrow Way".Corb Lund references this event in his song "Horse Soldier, Horse Soldier".
Cockburn, who accompanied Ross into the capital, reportedly wanted to burn the entire city in retaliation for American depredations in Canada. But it was an army operation and Ross' call, and he would have none of it.
{{citation}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Cockburn, who accompanied Ross into the capital, reportedly wanted to burn the entire city in retaliation for American depredations in Canada. But it was an army operation and Ross' call, and he would have none of it.
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