Burmese cuisine encompasses the diverse regional culinary traditions ofMyanmar, which have developed through longstanding agricultural practices, centuries of sociopolitical and economic change, and cross-cultural contact and trade with neighboring countries at the confluence ofSoutheast Asia,East Asia, andSouth Asia, such as modern-day nations of Thailand, China, and India, respectively.[1]
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Burmese cuisine is typified by a wide-ranging array of dishes, including traditionalBurmese curries and stews,Burmese salads, accompanied by soups and a medley of vegetables that are traditionally eaten withwhite rice.[2] Burmese curries are generally distinguished from other Southeast Asian curries in the former's prominent use of an aromatic trio of garlic, shallots, and ginger (in common with South Asian curries), and the general lack ofcoconut milk.
Burmese cuisine also featuresIndian breads as well as noodles, which are fried or prepared in salads andnoodle soups, chief among themmohinga.Street food and snack culture has also nurtured the profuse variety of traditionalBurmese fritters and modern savory and sweet snacks labeled under the umbrella ofmont.
The contrasting flavor profile of Burmese cuisine is broadly captured in the phrasechin ngan sat (ချဉ်ငန်စပ်), which literally means "sour, salty, and spicy."[3] A popular Burmese rhyme — "of all the fruit, themango's the best; of all the meat, thepork's the best; and of all the vegetables,lahpet's (tea leaves are) the best" — sums up the traditional favourites.[Note 1]
Rice is the principal staple in Burmese cuisine, reflecting several millennia ofrice cultivation, which first emerged in the country'sChindwin,Ayeyarwady, andThanlwin river valleys between 11,000 and 5000 BCE.[4] By 3000 BCE, irrigated rice cultivation flourished in the region, paralleled by the domestication of cattle and pigs by inhabitants.[4]
In addition to rice,tea originated in the borderlands separating Myanmar from China, precipitating a longstanding tradition of tea consumption and the development of pickled tea known aslaphet, which continues to play a pivotal role in Burmese ritual culture.[5][6] This longstanding history is reflected in theBurmese language, which is among the few world languages whose word for "tea" is not etymologically traced back to the Chinese word for "tea" (seeetymology of tea).[6]
Agrarian settlements were settled by ancestors of Myanmar's modern-day ethnolinguistic groups. From these settlements emerged a succession of Burmese, Mon, Shan, Rakhine-speaking kingdoms and tributary states that now make up contemporary Myanmar. Paddy rice cultivation remains synonymous with the predominantlyBuddhistBamar,Mon,Shan, andRakhine peoples who inhabit the country's fertile lowlands and plateaus.[7]
Burmese cuisine has been significantly enriched by contact and trade with neighboring kingdoms and countries well into modern times. TheColumbian exchange in the 15th and 16th centuries introduced key ingredients into the Burmese culinary repertoire, includingtomatoes,chili peppers,peanuts, andpotatoes.[8] A series ofBurmese–Siamese wars between the 16th to 19th centuries resulted in the emergence of Thai-inspired delicacies, includingkhanon dok,shwe yin aye,mont let hsaung, andYodaya mont di.[9]
While record-keeping of pre-colonial culinary traditions is scant, food was and remains deeply intertwined with religious life, especially among Buddhist communities, exemplified in the giving of food alms (dāna), and communal feasts calledsatuditha andahlu pwe (အလှူပွဲ). One of the few remaining pre-colonial cookbooks is theSadawhset Kyan (စားတော်ဆက်ကျမ်း,lit. 'Treatise on Royal Foods'), written on apalm leaf manuscript in 1866 during theKonbaung dynasty.[10] By theKonbaung dynasty (16th to 19th centuries), elaborate preparations of food played a central role in key court ceremonies (e.g.,naming ceremonies,wedding ceremonies, etc.), including as ritual offerings to Hindu andindigenous deities, and as celebratory meals for attendees.[11] By the Konbaung period, 126 distinct varieties of rice were cultivated in the country.[12]
British rule in Burma between the 19th and 20th centuries led to the establishment ofBurmese Indian andSino-Burmese communities that introduced novel cooking techniques, ingredients, food vocabulary, and fusion dishes that are now considered integral parts of Burmese cuisine.[13] These range fromIndian breads such asnaan andparatha to Chinesestir frying techniques and ingredients liketofu andsoy sauce.
Traditionally, the Burmese eat meals from plates on a low table ordaunglan, while sitting on a bamboo mat.[14] Dishes are simultaneously served and shared.[14] A traditional meal includes steamed white rice as the main dish accompanied byBurmese curries, a light soup or consommé, and other side dishes, including fried vegetables,Burmese fritters, andngapi yay gyo (ငါးပိရည်ကျို), a plate of fresh and blanched vegetables served with pickled fish dip.[12] The meal is then finished with a piece ofpalm sugar orlaphet (fermented tea leaves).[15]
Out of respect, the eldest diners are always served first before the rest join in; even when the elders are absent, the first morsel of rice from the pot is scooped and put aside as an act of respect to one's parents, a custom known asu cha (ဦးချ,lit. 'first serve').[16]
The Burmese traditionally eat with their right hand, forming the rice into a small ball with only the fingertips and mixing this with various morsels before popping it into their mouths.[16] Chopsticks andChinese-style spoons are used for noodle dishes, although noodle salads are more likely to be eaten with just a spoon. Western-style utensils, especially forks and knives, have gained currency in recent years.
In traditional Burmese eateries, green tea and numerous side dishes are served complimentary alongside the main dishes and rice.[17][18]
The country's diverse religious makeup influences its cuisine, as Buddhists and Hindus traditionally avoidbeef and Muslimspork. Beef is considered taboo by devout Buddhists and farmers because the cow is highly regarded as abeast of burden.[19]Vegetarianism is commonly practiced by Buddhists during the three-monthVassa (ဝါတွင်း) between July and October, as well as duringUposatha days, reflected in the Burmese word for "vegetarian,"thet that lut (သက်သတ်လွတ်,lit. 'free of killing'). During this time, devout Buddhists observeeight or more precepts, including fasting rules that restrict food intake to two daily meals (i.e., breakfast and lunch) taken before noon.
The beef taboo is fairly widespread in Myanmar, particularly in the Buddhist community. In Myanmar, beef is typically obtained from cattle that are slaughtered at the end of their working lives (16 years of age) or from sick animals.[20] Cattle is rarely raised for meat; 58% of cattle in the country is used for draught animal power.[20] Few people eat beef, and there is a general dislike of beef (especially among theBamar andBurmese Chinese),[21][22] although it is more commonly eaten in regional cuisines, particularly those of ethnic minorities like theKachin.[13] Buddhists, when giving up meat during the Buddhist (Vassa) orUposatha days, will forego beef first.[23] Butchers tend to be Muslim because of the Buddhist doctrine ofahimsa (no harm).[24]
During the country's last dynasty, theKonbaung dynasty, habitual consumption of beef was punishable by publicflogging.[25] In 1885,Ledi Sayadaw, a prominentBuddhist monk wrote theNwa-myitta-sa (နွားမေတ္တာစာ), a poetic prose letter which argued that Burmese Buddhists should not kill cattle and eat beef, because Burmese farmers depended on them as beasts of burden to maintain their livelihoods, that the marketing of beef for human consumption threatened the extinction of buffalo and cattle, and that the practice was ecologically unsound.[26] He subsequently led successful beef boycotts during the colonial era, and influenced a generation of Burmese nationalists in adopting this stance.[26]
On 29 August 1961, theBurmese Parliament passed the State Religion Promotion Act of 1961, which explicitly banned the slaughtering of cattle nationwide (beef became known astodo tha (တိုးတိုးသား);lit. 'hush hush meat').[27] Religious groups, such as Muslims, were required to apply for exemption licences to slaughter cattle on religious holidays. This ban was repealed a year later, afterNe Win led acoup d'état and declared martial law in the country.
In traditional Burmese medicine, foods are divided into two classes: heating (အပူစာ,apu za) or cooling (အအေးစာ,a-aye za), based on their effects on one's body system, similar to theChinese classification of food.[16] Examples of heating foods include chicken, bitter melon, durian, mango, chocolate, and ice cream. Examples of cooling foods include pork, eggplant, dairy products, cucumbers, and radish.
The Burmese also hold several taboos and superstitions regarding consumption during various occasions in one's life, especiallypregnancy. For instance, pregnant women are not supposed to eat chili, due to the belief that it causes children to have sparse scalp hairs.[16]
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Burmese dishes are not cooked with precise recipes. The use and portion of ingredients used may vary, but the precision of timing is of utmost importance.[16][10] Burmese dishes may be stewed, boiled, fried, roasted, steamed, baked or grilled, or any combination of the said techniques.[10]Burmese curries use only a handful of spices (in comparison to Indian ones) and use more fresh garlic and ginger.[10]
Broadly speaking, Burmese cuisine is divided between the culinary traditions ofUpper Myanmar, which is inland and landlocked; andLower Myanmar, which is surrounded by numerous rivers, river deltas, and theAndaman Sea.[28] Variations between regional cuisines are largely driven by the availability of fresh ingredients. Myanmar's long coastline has provided an abundant source of fresh seafood, which is particularly associated withRakhine cuisine.[29] Southern Myanmar, particularly the area aroundMawlamyaing, is known for its cuisine, as the Burmese proverb goes: "Mandalay for eloquence, Yangon for boasting, Mawlamyaing for food."[30][Note 2]
Cuisine in Lower Myanmar, includingYangon and Mawlamyaing, makes extensive use of fish and seafood-based products likefish sauce andngapi (fermented seafood).[28] The cuisine in Upper Myanmar, including the Bamar heartland (Mandalay,Magway, andSagaing Regions),Shan State, andKachin States, tends to use more meat, poultry, pulses and beans.[28] The level of spices and use of fresh herbs varies depending on the region; Kachin and Shan curries will often use more fresh herbs.[2]
FusionChettiar (ချစ်တီးကုလား) cuisine, originating from Southern Indian cuisine, is also popular in cities.
Burmese cuisine incorporates numerous local ingredients that are less frequently used in other Southeast Asian cuisines, among them sourroselle leaves, astringentpennywort leaves,goat,mutton, and dried beans and lentils.[31]
Because a standardised system ofromanisation for spokenBurmese does not exist, pronunciations of the following dishes in modern standard Burmese approximated usingIPA are provided (seeIPA/Burmese for details).
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Myanmar is one of very few countries where tea is not only drunk but eaten aslahpet, pickled tea served with various accompaniments.[32][33] The practice of eating tea dates in modern-day Myanmar back to prehistoric antiquity, reflecting the legacy of indigenous tribes who pickled and fermented tea leaves inside bamboo tubes, bamboo baskets, plantain leaves and pots.[6] Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated by thePalaung people.[6] Pickled tea leaves continue to play an important role inBurmese culture today.[6]Ngapi (ငါးပိ), a fermented paste made from salted fish or shrimp, is considered the cornerstone of any Burmese traditional meal. It is used to season many soups, salads, curries and dishes, and condiments, imparting a richumami flavor.[2] Thengapi ofRakhine State contains no or little salt, and uses marine fish. Meanwhile, ngapi made with freshwater fish is common in Ayeyarwady and Tanintharyi regions.Ngapi yay (ငါးပိရည်) is an essential part of Karen and Bamar cuisine, in which a sauce dip ofngapi cooked in various vegetables and spices is served with blanched and fresh vegetables, similar to Thainam phrik, Indonesianlalab, and Malayulam. Pickled fish, calledngachin, is also used in Burmese cooking.
Shan cuisine traditionally uses fermented beans calledpè ngapi (ပဲငါးပိ;lit. 'beanngapi'), in lieu ofngapi, to impart umami.[2] Dried bean ngapi chips (ပဲပုပ်;lit. 'spoiled beans') are used as condiments for various Shan dishes.[34]
Pon ye gyi (ပုံးရည်ကြီး), a thick salty black paste made from fermented beans, is popular in the Bamar heartland. It is used in cooking, especially with pork, and as a salad with peanut oil, chopped onions and red chili.Bagan is an importantpon ye gyi producer.[35]
Burmese cuisine also features a wide variety of pickled vegetables and fruits that are preserved in oil and spices, or in brine and rice wine.[3] The former, calledthanat (သနပ်), are similar toSouth Asian pickles, includingmango pickle. The latter are calledchinbat (ချဉ်ဖတ်), and include pickles likemohnyin gyin.
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The most common staple in Myanmar is steamed rice, calledhtamin (ထမင်း). Burmese varieties of rice are typically starchier than jasmine or basmati rice.[12] Fragrant, aromatic varieties of white rice, includingpaw hsan hmwe (ပေါ်ဆန်းမွှေး), are popular. Lower-amylose varieties ofglutinous rice, which are calledkauk hnyin (ကောက်ညှင်း), also feature in Burmese cuisine, including a purple variety calledngacheik (ငချိပ်). Consumers in the northern highlands (e.g.,Shan State) prefer stickier, lower-amylose varieties likekauk hnyin andkauk sei, while consumers in lower delta regions preferring higher-amylose varieties likekauk chaw andkauk kyan.[36] Lower-amylose varieties of rice are commonly used in traditional Burmese snacks calledmont.[36] While rice is traditionally eaten plain, flavored versions likebuttered rice andcoconut rice are commonplace festive staples.[37]
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Burmese cuisine uses a wide variety of noodles, which are prepared in soups, salads, or other dry noodle dishes and typically eaten outside of lunch, or as a snack.[2] Fresh, thin rice noodles calledmont bat (မုန့်ဖတ်) ormont di (မုန့်တီ), are similar to Thaikhanom chin, and feature in Myanmar's national dish,mohinga. Burmese cuisine also has a category ofrice noodles of varying sizes and shapes callednan, includingnangyi (နန်းကြီး), thick udon-like noodles;nanlat (နန်းလတ်), medium-sized rice noodles;nanthe (နန်းသေး), thinner rice noodles; andnanbya (နန်းပြား), flat rice noodles.[43]Cellophane noodles, calledkyazan (ကြာဆံ,lit. 'lotus thread') and wheat-based noodles calledkhauk swe (ခေါက်ဆွဲ),[43] are often used in salads, soups, and stir-fries.[2]
Dry or fried noodle dishes include:
Noodle soups include:
Burmese salads (အသုပ်; transliteratedathoke orathouk) are a diverse category of indigenoussalads in Burmese cuisine. Burmese salads are made of cooked and raw ingredients that are mixed by hand to combine and balance a wide-ranging array of flavors and textures.[2] Burmese salads are eaten as standalone snacks, asside dishes paired withBurmese curries, and as entrees.[3]
Burmese curry refers to a diverse array of dishes in Burmese cuisine that consist of protein or vegetables simmered or stewed in an base of aromatics.[2] Burmese curries generally differ from other Southeast Asiancurries (e.g.,Thai curry) in that Burmese curries make use of driedspices, in addition to fresh herbs and aromatics, and are often milder.[54] The most common variety of curry is calledsibyan (ဆီပြန်;lit. 'oil returns'), which is typified by a layer of oil that separates from the gravy and meat after cooked.[28] Pork, chicken, goat, shrimp, and fish are commonly prepared in Burmese curries.
In Burmese cuisine, soups typically accompany meals featuring both rice and noodles, and are paired accordingly to balance contrasting flavors. Lightly flavored soups, calledhin gyo (ဟင်းချို) are served with saltier dishes, while sour soups, calledchinyay hin (ချဉ်ရည်ဟင်း), are paired with rich, fattyBurmese curries.[3]
Thizon chinyay (သီးစုံချဉ်ရည်[θízòʊɴtʃìɴjè],lit. 'sour soup of assorted vegetables'), cooked withdrumstick,lady's finger,eggplant,green beans,potato,onions,ginger, dried chilli, boiled eggs, dried salted fish,fish paste andtamarind, is an elevated version ofchinyay hin, and served during festive occasions.[3]
Indian breads are commonly eaten for breakfast or teatime in Myanmar.Palata (ပလာတာ), also known ashtattaya (ထပ်တစ်ရာ), a flaky fried flatbread related to Indianparatha, is often eaten with curried meats or as dessert with sprinkled sugar,[59] whilenanbya (နံပြား), a baked flatbread, is eaten with any Indian dishes.[38] Other favorites includealoopoori (အာလူးပူရီ),chapati (ချပါတီ), andappam (အာပုံ).[60][61]
Other dishes include:
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Burmese cuisine has a wide variety of traditional snacks calledmont, ranging from sweet desserts to savory food items that are steamed, baked, fried, deep-fried, or boiled. TraditionalBurmese fritters, consisting of vegetables or seafood that have been battered and deep-fried, are also eaten as snacks or as toppings.[65]
Savory snacks include:
Sweet snacks include:
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Myanmar has a wide range of fruits, mostly of tropical origin. Fruit is commonly eaten as a snack or dessert.[2] While most fruits are eaten fresh, a few, includingjengkol, are boiled, roasted or otherwise cooked. Popular fruits includebanana,mango,watermelon,papaya,jujube, avocado,pomelo, andguava.[69] Others includemarian plum,mangosteen,sugar-apple,rambutan,durian,jackfruit,lychee, andpomegranate. Some fruits, including green mangoes, plums, and guavas, are traditionally eaten before they ripen, often mixed with chili powder and salt.[12]
Burmese fruit preserves, calledyo (ယို), are also commonly eaten as standalone snacks. Common ones include fruit preserves made fromfig,jujube,marian plum, citrus, mango, pineapple, anddurian.
300 cultivars of mango are grown in Myanmar, includingseintalon (စိန်တစ်လုံး,lit. 'one diamond'),Ma Chit Su (မချစ်စု), andmya kyauk (မြကျောက်,lit. 'emerald stone').[12][70] 13 species of banana are locally cultivated in Myanmar, including the following cultivars:[71]
Tea is the national drink of Myanmar, reflecting the influence of Buddhism and its views ontemperance.[72] Tea is central to Burmese dining culture; complimentary green tea is customarily served to diners at restaurants and teashops alike.[18] Various liquid concoctions made from fruits andcoconut milk, includingsugarcane juice, andmont let hsaung (မုန့်လက်ဆောင်း) are also popular.[73] Indigenous fermented drinks likepalm wine are also found across the country. During a traditional Burmese meal, drinks are not often served; instead, the usual liquid refreshment is a light broth orconsommé served from acommunal bowl.
Plaingreen tea,yay nway gyan (ရေနွေးကြမ်း,lit. 'crude tea water'), is a popular form of tea drunk in Myanmar.[32] Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated inShan State andKachin State.[32]Milk tea, calledlaphet yay cho (လက်ဖက်ရည်ချို), made with strongly brewed black tea leaves, and sweetened with a customized ratio ofcondensed milk andevaporated milk, is also popular.[74][6]
Palm wine, calledhtan yay (ထန်းရည်), made from the fermented sap of thetoddy palm, is traditionally consumed in rural parts ofUpper Myanmar[75] Ethnic communities, including theKachin andShan, also brew localmoonshines.[76] Several ethnic minorities traditionally brew alcoholic beverages using rice or glutinous rice calledkhaung [my] (ခေါင်ရည်).[77] Thekhaung of theChin peoples is brewed using millet seeds.[77] Locally brewed beers include Irrawaddy, Mandalay, Myanmar, and Tiger.[72]
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Dine-in restaurants that serve steamed rice with traditional Burmese curries and dishes are calledhtamin hsaing (ထမင်းဆိုင်;lit. 'rice shop'). At traditional curry shops, soup is typically served complimentary, alongside pickled and raw vegetables, chutneys and various seasonings.[12]
During British rule in Burma,Burmese Indians introducedtea shops to the country, first known askaka hsaing, which later evolved into tea shops calledlaphet yay hsaing (လက်ဖက်ရည်ဆိုင်) orkaphi (ကဖီး), the latter word from Frenchcafé. Burmese tea shop culture emerged from a combination of British, Indian, and Chinese influences throughout the colonial period.[78] Tea shops are prevalent across the country, forming an important part of communal life.[33][79] Typically open throughout the day, some Burmese tea shops cater to locals, long-distance drivers and travellers alike. The Burmese typically gather in tea shops to drink milk tea served with an extensive array of snacks and meals.[78]
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Street food stalls and hawkers are a feature of the Burmese urban landscape, especially in major cities likeYangon.[80]Burmese salads,snacks, andfritters are especially popular street foods.[81] In recent years, some major cities have clamped down on street food vendors. In 2016, Yangon banned the city's 6,000 street vendors from selling food on major thoroughfares, and relocated them to formal night markets set up by the city.[82]
Night markets, callednya zay (ညဈေး), are a feature of many Burmese towns and cities. Colonial observers as early as 1878 noted Burmese street hawkers selling delicacies, such as fruits, cakes, and laphet during "night bazaars."[83] The streets surrounding major daytime markets, such asZegyo Market in Mandalay, typically double as makeshift night markets during the evenings.[84]
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