Burkina Faso remains one of theleast developed countries in the world, with a GDP of $16.226 billion in 2022. Approximately 63.8% of its population practicesIslam, while 26.3% practices Christianity.[14] The country's four official languages areMooré,Bissa,Dyula andFula, with the first one being spoken by over half the population;[15][16] the Burkinabè government also officially recognizes 60 indigenous languages.[16] The former government and business language wasFrench until January 2024, when its status was demoted to that of a "working language" alongsideEnglish by ratification of a constitutional amendment.[17][18]
Formerly theRepublic of Upper Volta, the country was renamed "Burkina Faso" on 4 August 1984 by then-PresidentThomas Sankara. The words "Burkina" and "Faso" stem from different languages spoken in the country: "Burkina" comes fromMooré and means "upright", showing how the people are proud of their integrity, while "Faso" comes from theDyula language (as written inN'Ko:ߝߊ߬ߛߏ߫faso) and means "fatherland" (literally, "father's house"). The "-bé" suffix added onto "Burkina" to form the demonym "Burkinabé" comes from theFula language and means "women or men".[20] The USCentral Intelligence Agency'sWorld Fact Book gives the translation as "Land of the Honest (Incorruptible) Men".[21]
The northwestern part of present-day Burkina Faso was populated byhunter-gatherers from 14,000 BC to 5,000 BC. Their tools, includingscrapers,chisels andarrowheads, were discovered in 1973 througharchaeological excavations.[23] Agricultural settlements were established between 3600 and 2600 BC.[23] TheBura culture was anIron-Agecivilization centred in the southwest portion of modern-day Niger and in the southeast part of contemporary Burkina Faso.[24]Iron industry, insmelting andforging for tools and weapons, had developed inSub-Saharan Africa by 1200 BC.[25][26] To date, the oldest evidence of iron smelting found in Burkina Faso dates from 800 to 700 BC and forms part of theAncient Ferrous Metallurgy World Heritage Site.[27] From the 3rd to the 13th centuries AD, theIron AgeBura culture existed in the territory of present-day southeastern Burkina Faso and southwestern Niger. Various ethnic groups of present-day Burkina Faso, such as theMossi,Fula andDioula, arrived in successive waves between the 8th and 15th centuries. From the 11th century, the Mossi people establishedseveral separate kingdoms.
There is debate about the exact dates when Burkina Faso's many ethnic groups arrived to the area. The proto-Mossi arrived in the far eastern part of what is today Burkina Faso sometime between the 8th and 11th centuries, and acceptedIslam as their religion in the 11th century.[28] TheSamo arrived around the 15th century.[29] TheDogon lived in Burkina Faso's north and northwest regions until sometime in the 15th or 16th centuries, and many of the other ethnic groups that make up the country's population arrived in the region during this time.[30]
The cavalry of theMossi Kingdoms were experts at raiding deep into enemy territory, even against the formidableMali Empire.Armed men prevent the French explorerLouis-Gustave Binger from entering Sia (Bobo-Dioulasso) during his stay in April 1892.
During theMiddle Ages, the Mossi established several separate kingdoms including those of Tenkodogo, Yatenga, Zandoma, and Ouagadougou.[31] Sometime between 1328 and 1338, Mossi warriors raidedTimbuktu but the Mossi were defeated bySonni Ali ofSonghai at the Battle of Kobi in Mali in 1483.[32]
During the early 16th century, the Songhai conducted many slave raids into what is today Burkina Faso.[29] During the 18th century, theGwiriko Empire was established atBobo Dioulasso and ethnic groups such as the Dyan, Lobi, and Birifor settled along theBlack Volta.[33]
Starting in the early 1890s during the EuropeanScramble for Africa, a series of European military officers made attempts to claim parts of what is today Burkina Faso. At times thesecolonialists and their armies fought the local peoples; at times they forged alliances with them and made treaties. The colonialist officers and their home governments also made treaties among themselves. The territory of Burkina Faso was invaded byFrance, becoming aFrench protectorate in 1896.[34]
The eastern and western regions, where a standoff against the forces of the powerful rulerSamori Ture complicated the situation, came under French occupation in 1897. By 1898, the majority of the territory corresponding to Burkina Faso was nominally conquered; however, French control of many parts remained uncertain.[23]
TheFranco-British Convention of 14 June 1898 created the country's modern borders. In the French territory, a war of conquest against local communities and political powers continued for about five years. In 1904, the largely pacified territories of theVolta basin were integrated into theUpper Senegal and Niger colony ofFrench West Africa as part of the reorganization of the French West African colonial empire. The colony had its capital inBamako.
The language of colonial administration and schooling became French. The public education system started from humble origins. Advanced education was provided for many years during the colonial period in Dakar.[citation needed]
The indigenous population was highly discriminated against. For example, African children were not allowed to ride bicycles or pick fruit from trees, "privileges" reserved for the children of colonists. Violating these regulations could land parents in jail.[35]
Draftees from the territory participated in the European fronts ofWorld War I in the battalions of theSenegalese Rifles. Between 1915 and 1916, the districts in the western part of what is now Burkina Faso and the bordering eastern fringe of Mali became the stage of one of the most important armed oppositions to colonial government: theVolta-Bani War.[36]
The French government finally suppressed the movement but only after suffering defeats.[verification needed] It also had to organize its largest expeditionary force of its colonial history to send into the country to suppress the insurrection. Armed opposition wracked the Sahelian north when theTuareg and allied groups of the Dori region ended their truce with the government.
French Upper Volta was established on 1 March 1919. The French feared a recurrence of armed uprising and had related economic considerations. To bolster its administration, the colonial government separated the present territory of Burkina Faso from Upper Senegal and Niger.
The new colony was namedHaute Volta for its location on the upper courses of theVolta River (theBlack,Red andWhite Volta), and François Charles Alexis Édouard Hesling became its firstgovernor. Hesling initiated an ambitious road-making program to improve infrastructure and promoted the growth of cotton for export. The cotton policy – based oncoercion – failed, and revenue generated by the colony stagnated. The colony was dismantled on 5 September 1932, being split between the French colonies ofIvory Coast,French Sudan andNiger. Ivory Coast received the largest share, which contained most of the population as well as the cities of Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso.[citation needed]
France reversed this change during the period of intense anti-colonial agitation that followed the end ofWorld War II. On 4 September 1947, it revived the colony of Upper Volta, with its previous boundaries, as a part of theFrench Union. The French designated its colonies as departments ofmetropolitan France on the European continent.
On 11 December 1958, the colony achievedself-government as theRepublic of Upper Volta; it joined the Franco-African Community. A revision in the organization of French Overseas Territories had begun with the passage of the Basic Law (Loi Cadre) of 23 July 1956. This act was followed by reorganization measures approved by the French parliament early in 1957 to ensure a large degree of self-government for individual territories. Upper Volta became an autonomous republic in the French community on 11 December 1958. Full independence from France was received in 1960.[37]
Before attaining autonomy, it had been French Upper Volta and part of the French Union. On 5 August 1960, it attained full independence fromFrance. The first president,Maurice Yaméogo, was the leader of theVoltaic Democratic Union (UDV). The 1960 constitution provided for election byuniversal suffrage of a president and a national assembly. Soon after coming to power, Yaméogo banned all political parties other than the UDV. The government lasted until 1966. After much unrest, including mass demonstrations and strikes by students, labor unions, and civil servants, the military intervened.
The1966 military coup deposed Yaméogo, suspended the constitution, dissolved the National Assembly, and placed Lt. Col.Sangoulé Lamizana at the head of a government of senior army officers. The army remained in power for four years. On 14 June 1976, the Voltans ratified a new constitution that established a four-year transition period toward complete civilian rule. Lamizana remained in power throughout the 1970s as president of military or mixed civil-military governments. Lamizana's rule coincided with the beginning of theSahel drought and famine which had a devastating impact on Upper Volta and neighboring countries. After conflict over the 1976 constitution, a new constitution was written and approved in 1977. Lamizana was re-elected by open elections in 1978.
Lamizana's government faced problems with the country's traditionally powerful trade unions, and on 25 November 1980, Col.Saye Zerbo overthrew President Lamizana in abloodless coup. Colonel Zerbo established the Military Committee of Recovery for National Progress as the supreme governmental authority, thus eradicating the 1977 constitution.
Colonel Zerbo also encountered resistance from trade unions and was overthrown two years later by Maj. Dr.Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo and the Council of Popular Salvation (CSP) in the1982 Upper Voltan coup d'état. The CSP continued to ban political parties and organizations, yet promised a transition to civilian rule and a new constitution.[38][39]
Infighting developed between the right and left factions of the CSP. The leader of the leftists, Capt.Thomas Sankara, was appointed prime minister in January 1983, but was subsequently arrested. Efforts to free him, directed by Capt.Blaise Compaoré, resulted in a military coup d'état on 4 August 1983.
The coup brought Sankara to power and his government began to implement a series of revolutionary programs which included mass-vaccinations, infrastructure improvements, the expansion of women's rights, encouragement of domestic agricultural consumption, and anti-desertification projects.[40]
On 2 August 1984, on Sankara's initiative, the country's name changed from "Upper Volta" to "Burkina Faso", orland of the honest men; (the literal translation island of the upright men).[41][42][need quotation to verify][43][44] The presidential decree was confirmed by the National Assembly on 4 August 1984.
Sankara launched an ambitious socioeconomic programme for change, one of the largest ever undertaken on the African continent.[40] His foreign policies centred onanti-imperialism, with his government rejecting allforeign aid, pushing forodious debt reduction, nationalising all land and mineral wealth and averting the power and influence of theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF) andWorld Bank. His domestic policies included a nationwide literacy campaign, land redistribution to peasants, railway and road construction and the outlawing offemale genital mutilation,forced marriages andpolygamy.[40][45]
Sankara pushed for agrarian self-sufficiency and promoted public health by vaccinating 2,500,000 children againstmeningitis,yellow fever, andmeasles.[45] His national agenda also included planting more than 10,000,000 trees to halt the growingdesertification of theSahel. Sankara called on every village to build a medical dispensary and had more than 350 communities build schools with their own labour.[40][46]
In the 1980s, when ecological awareness was still very low, Sankara was one of the few African leaders to consider environmental protection a priority. He engaged in three major battles: against bush fires "which will be considered as crimes and will be punished as such"; against cattle roaming "which infringes on the rights of peoples because unattended animals destroy nature"; and against the illegitimate cutting of firewood "whose profession will have to be organized and regulated". As part of a development program involving a large part of the population, ten million trees were planted in Burkina Faso in fifteen months during the revolution. To face the advancing desert and recurrent droughts, Sankara also proposed the planting of wooded strips about fifty kilometers wide, crossing the country from east to west. Cereal production, close to 1.1 billion tons before 1983, was predicted to rise to 1.6 billion tons in 1987. Jean Ziegler, former UN special rapporteur for the right to food, said that the country "had become food self-sufficient."[47]
On 15 October 1987, Sankara and twelve other government officials were assassinated in a coup d'état organized by Blaise Compaoré, Sankara's former colleague, who took over as Burkina Faso's president. He held the position until October 2014.[48] After the coup and although Sankara was known to be dead, some CDRs mounted an armed resistance to thearmy for several days.[49][50][51] A majority[quantify] of Burkinabè citizens hold thatFrance's foreign ministry, theQuai d'Orsay, was behind Compaoré in organizing the coup. There is some evidence for France's support of the coup.[52]
Compaoré gave the deterioration in relations with neighbouring countries as one of the reasons for the coup.[53] He argued that Sankara had jeopardised foreign relations with the former colonial power (France) and with neighbouringIvory Coast.[54] Following the coup, Compaoré immediately reversed the nationalizations, overturned nearly all of Sankara's policies, returned the country back into the IMF fold, and ultimately spurned most of Sankara's legacy. Following an allegedcoup-attempt in 1989, Compaoré introduced limited democratic reforms in 1990. Under the new (1991)constitution, Compaoré wasre-elected without opposition in December 1991. In 1998 Compaoré wonelection in a landslide. In 2004, 13 people were tried for plotting a coup against President Compaoré and the coup's alleged mastermind was sentenced to life imprisonment.[55]
In 2000, the constitution was amended to reduce the presidential term to five years and set term limits to two, preventing successive re-election. The amendment took effect during the 2005 elections. If passed beforehand, it would have prevented Compaoré from being reelected. Other presidential candidates challenged the election results. But in October 2005, the constitutional council ruled that the amendment would not apply until the end of his second term in office. This cleared the way for his candidacy inthe 2005 election. On 13 November 2005, he was reelected in a landslide.
In the2010 presidential election, Compaoré was re-elected. Only 1.6 million Burkinabè voted, out of a total population 10 times that size. In February 2011, the death of a schoolboy provoked the2011 Burkinabè protests, a series of popular protests, coupled with a military mutiny and a magistrates' strike, that called for Compaoré's resignation, democratic reforms, higher wages for troops and public servants and economic freedom.[56][57][58] As a result, governors were replaced and wages for public servants were raised.[59][60] In April 2011, there was anarmy mutiny; the president named new chiefs of staff, and a curfew was imposed inOuagadougou.[61]
Starting on 28 October 2014 protesters began to march and demonstrate in Ouagadougou against President Compaoré, who appeared[need quotation to verify] ready to amend the constitution and extend his rule. On 30 October protesters set fire to the parliament building[63] and took over the national TV headquarters.[64]Ouagadougou International Airport closed and MPs suspended the vote on changing the constitution (the change would have allowed Compaoré to stand for re-election in 2015). Later in the day, the military dissolved all government institutions and imposed acurfew.[65]
On 31 October 2014, Compaoré resigned.[66]Lt. Col. Isaac Zida said that he would lead the country during its transitional period before the planned2015 presidential election, but there were concerns[by whom?] over his close ties to the former president.[67] In November 2014 opposition parties,civil-society groups and religious leaders adopted a plan for a transitional authority to guide Burkina Faso to elections.[68] Under the planMichel Kafando became the transitional president and Lt. Col. Zida became the acting Prime Minister and Defense Minister.
On 16 September 2015, theRegiment of Presidential Security (RSP) carried out acoup d'état, seizing the president and prime minister and then declaring theNational Council for Democracy the new national government.[69] However, on 22 September 2015, the coup leader,Gilbert Diendéré, apologized and promised to restore civilian government.[70] On 23 September 2015 the prime minister and interim president were restored to power.[71]
Kaboré presidency and Jihadist insurgency (2015–2023)
General elections took place on 29 November 2015.Roch Marc Christian Kaboré won the election in the first round with 53.5% of the vote, defeating businessmanZéphirin Diabré, who took 29.7%.[72] Kaboré was sworn in as president on 29 December 2015.[73] Kaboré was re-elected in thegeneral election of 22 November 2020, but his party Mouvement du Peuple pour le Progrès (MPP), failed to reach absolute parliamentary majority. It secured 56 seats out of a total of 127. The Congress for Democracy and Progress (CDP), the party of former President Blaise Compaoré, was distant second with 20 seats.[74]
Smoke rising from French Embassy in Ouagadougou, 2 March 2018, during the2018 Ouagadougou attacks
Between 27 March and 10 April 2017, the governments ofMali, France, and Burkina Faso launched a joint operation named "Operation Panga", which involved 1,300 soldiers from the three countries, in the Fhero Forest, near theBurkina Faso-Mali border, considered a sanctuary for Ansarul Islam.[83][84] The head of Ansarul Islam, Ibrahim Malam Dicko, was killed in June 2017 andJafar Dicko became leader.[85]
On 2 March 2018,Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Musliminattacked the French embassy inOuagadougou as well as the general staff of the Burkinabè army. Eight soldiers and eight attackers were killed, and a further 61 soldiers and 24 civilians were injured.[86] The insurgency expanded to the east of the country[87][88][89] and, in early October, the Armed Forces of Burkina Faso launched a major military operation in the country's East, supported by French forces.[90][91][92] According toHuman Rights Watch, between mid-2018 to February 2019, at least 42 people were murdered by jihadists and a minimum of 116 mostly Fulani civilians were killed by military forces without trial.[93] The attacksincreased significantly in 2019. According to theACLED, armed violence in Burkina Faso jumped by 174% in 2019, with nearly 1,300 civilians dead and 860,000 displaced.[94] Jihadist groups also began to specifically targetChristians.[95][96][97][98]
Displaced Fulani civilians in the aftermath of theYirgou massacre
On 8 July 2020, the United States raised concerns after aHuman Rights Watch report revealed mass graves with at least 180 bodies, which were found in northern Burkina Faso where soldiers were fighting jihadists.[99] On 4 June 2021, the Associated Press reported that according to the government of Burkina Faso, gunmen killed at least 100 people in Solhan village in northern Burkina Faso near the Niger border. A local market and several homes were also burned down. A government spokesman blamed jihadists. Heni Nsaibia, senior researcher at theArmed Conflict Location and Event Data Project said it was the deadliest attack recorded in Burkina Faso since the beginning of the jihadist insurgency.[100][full citation needed]
In 2023, shortly after the murder of a Catholic priest by insurgents, the bishop of Dori, Laurent Dabiré, claimed in an interview with Catholic charityAid to the Church in Need that around 50% of the country was in the hands of Islamists.[104]
In a successful coup on 24 January 2022, mutinying soldiers arrested and deposed PresidentRoch Marc Christian Kaboré following gunfire.[105] ThePatriotic Movement for Safeguard and Restoration (MPSR) supported by the military declared itself to be in power,[106][107] led by Lieutenant ColonelPaul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba.[108] On 31 January, the military junta restored the constitution and appointed Damiba interim president. In the aftermath of the coup,ECOWAS and theAfrican Union suspended Burkina Faso's membership.[109][110] On 10 February, the Constitutional Council declared Damiba president.[111] He was sworn in as president on 16 February.[112] On 1 March 2022, the junta approved a charter allowing a military-led transition of 3 years.[113] The charter provides for the transition process to be followed by the holding of elections.[114]President Kaboré, who had been detained since the military junta took power, was released on 6 April 2022.[115]
The insurgency continued following the coup, with about 60% of the country under government control.[116] TheSiege of Djibo began in February 2022[117][118] and continued as of June 2023.[119][120] Between 100 and 165 peoplewere killed inSeytenga Department,Séno Province on 12–13 June and around 16,000 people fled their homes.[121][122] In June 2022, the Government announced the creation of "military zones", which civilians were required to vacate so that the country's Armed and Security Forces could fight insurgents without any "hindrances".[123][124]
On 30 September 2022, Damiba was ousted in a military coup led by Capt.Ibrahim Traoré.[125][126] This came eight months after Damiba had seized power. The rationale given by Traoré for the coup d'état was the purported inability of Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba to deal with an Islamist insurgency.[127] Damiba resigned and left the country.[128] On 6 October 2022, Captain Ibrahim Traoré was officially appointed as president.[129]Apollinaire Joachim Kyélem de Tambèla was appointed interim Prime Minister on 21 October 2022.[130]
On 13 April 2023, authorities in Burkina Faso declared a mobilisation in order to give the nation all means necessary to combat terrorism and create a "legal framework for all the actions to be taken" against the insurgents in recapturing 40% of the national territory from Islamist insurgents.[131] On 20 April, the Rapid Intervention Brigade committed theKarma massacre, rounding up and executing civiliansen masse. Between 60 and 156 civilians were killed.[132][133][134][135]
In 2025, the armed forces foiled an attempted coup which they said had been planned by plotters based in theIvory Coast. Thousands rallied in Ouagadougou in support of the military government after the foiled coup plot.[137] In May, reports of a digitalcult around Traoré began to surface.[138][139][140]
Satellite image of Burkina FasoMap of Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso lies mostly between latitudes9° and15° N (a small area is north of 15°), and longitudes6° W and3° E.
It is made up of two major types of countryside. The larger part of the country is covered by apeneplain, which forms a gently undulating landscape with, in some areas, a few isolated hills, the last vestiges of aPrecambrianmassif. The southwest of the country, on the other hand, forms asandstone massif, where the highest peak,Ténakourou, is found at an elevation of 749 meters (2,457 ft). The massif is bordered by sheer cliffs up to 150 m (492 ft) high. The average altitude of Burkina Faso is 400 m (1,312 ft) and the difference between the highest and lowest terrain is no greater than 600 m (1,969 ft).
The country owes its former name of Upper Volta to three rivers which cross it: theBlack Volta (orMouhoun), theWhite Volta (Nakambé) and theRed Volta (Nazinon). The Black Volta is one of the country's only two rivers which flow year-round, the other being theKomoé, which flows to the southwest. The basin of theNiger River alsodrains 27% of the country's surface.
The Niger'stributaries – the Béli, Gorouol, Goudébo, and Dargol – areseasonal streams and flow for only four to six months a year. They still can flood and overflow, however. The country also contains numerous lakes – the principal ones are Tingrela,Bam, and Dem. The country contains large ponds, as well, such as Oursi, Béli, Yomboli, and Markoye.Water shortages are often a problem, especially in the north of the country.
In Burkina Fasoforest cover is around 23% of the total land area, equivalent to 6,216,400 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 7,716,600 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 6,039,300 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 177,100 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to beprimary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 16% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership.[142][143]
Burkina Faso has a primarily tropical climate with two very distinct seasons. In the rainy season, the country receives between 600 and 900 mm (24 and 35 in) of rainfall; in the dry season, theharmattan – a hot dry wind from the Sahara – blows. The rainy season lasts around four months, May/June to September, but is shorter in the north of the country. Three climatic zones can be defined: theSahel, the Sudan-Sahel, and the Sudan-Guinea. The Sahel in the north typically receives less than 600 mm (24 in)[144] of rainfall per year and has high temperatures, 5–47 °C (41–117 °F).
A relatively drytropical savanna, the Sahel extends beyond the borders of Burkina Faso, from theHorn of Africa to the Atlantic Ocean, and borders theSahara to its north and the fertile region of theSudan to the south. Situated between 11° 3′ and 13° 5′ northlatitude, the Sudan-Sahel region is a transitional zone with regard to rainfall and temperature. Further to the south, the Sudan-Guinea zone receives more than 900 mm (35 in)[144] of rain each year and has cooler average temperatures.
Damage caused by the Dourtenga floods in 2007
Geography and environment contribute to Burkina Faso's food insecurity.[145] As the country is situated in theSahel region, it has some of the most radical climatic variation in the world, ranging from severe flooding to extreme drought.[146] The unpredictable climatic shocks can make it very difficult for Burkina Faso citizens to rely on and prosper from agriculture.[147]
Burkina Faso's climate also renders its crops vulnerable to insect attacks, including attacks fromlocusts andcrickets, which destroy crops and further inhibit food production.[148] Not only is most of the population of Burkina Faso dependent on agriculture as a source of income, but they also rely on the agricultural sector for food that will directly feed the household.[149] Due to the vulnerability of agriculture, more and more families are having to look for other sources of non-farm income,[150] and often have to travel outside of their regional zone to find work.[149]
Burkina Faso has a larger number ofelephants than many countries in West Africa. Lions, leopards and buffalo can also be found here, including the dwarf or red buffalo, a smaller reddish-brown animal which looks like a fierce kind of short-legged cow. Other large predators live in Burkina Faso, such as the cheetah, the caracal or African lynx, the spotted hyena and the African painted dog, one of the continent's most endangered species.[151]
Burkina Faso'sfauna and flora are protected in four national parks:
Theconstitution of 2 June 1991 established asemi-presidential government: its parliament could be dissolved by thePresident of the Republic, who was to beelected for a term of seven years. In 2000, the constitution was amended to reduce the presidential term to five years and set term limits to two, preventing successive re-election. The amendment took effect during the 2005 elections.
The parliament consisted ofone chamber known as theNational Assembly, which had 111 seats with members elected to serve five-year terms. There was also a constitutional chamber, composed of ten members, and an economic and social council whose roles were purely consultative. The 1991 constitution created abicameral parliament, but the upper house (Chamber of Representatives) was abolished in 2002.
The Compaoré administration had worked todecentralize power by devolving some of its powers to regions and municipal authorities. The widespread distrust of politicians and lack of political involvement by many residents complicated this process. Critics described this as a hybrid decentralisation.[152]
Political freedoms are severely restricted in Burkina Faso.Human rights organizations had criticised the Compaoré administration for numerous acts of state-sponsored violence against journalists and other politically active members of society.[153][154]
The prime minister is head of government and is appointed by the president with the approval of the National Assembly. He is responsible for recommending a cabinet for appointment by the president.[155]
In 2015, Kaboré promised to revise the 1991 constitution. The revision was completed in 2018. One condition prevents any individual from serving as president for more than ten years either consecutively or intermittently and provides a method for impeaching a president. A referendum on the constitution for the Fifth Republic was scheduled for 24 March 2019.[156]
Certain rights are also enshrined in the revised wording: access to drinking water, access to decent housing and a recognition of the right to civil disobedience, for example. The referendum was required because the opposition parties in Parliament refused to sanction the proposed text.[157]
Burkina Faso is a member of theCommunity of Sahel–Saharan States,La Francophonie,Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and United Nations. It is currently suspended fromECOWAS and theAfrican Union. Until December 2023 Burkina Faso was a member ofG5 Sahel, a small group formed in 2014 to co-operate with development and security matters. However, in December 2023 the country withdrew from the organisation due to concerns of "serving foreign interests to the detriments of our people".
Thearmy consists of some 6,000 men in voluntary service, augmented by a part-time national People's Militia composed of civilians between 25 and 35 years of age who are trained in both military and civil duties. According toJane's Sentinel Country Risk Assessment, Burkina Faso's Army is undermanned for its force structure and poorly equipped, but has wheeled light-armour vehicles, and may have developed useful combat expertise through interventions in Liberia and elsewhere in Africa.[161]
In terms of training and equipment, the regular Army is believed to be neglected in relation to the eliteRegiment of Presidential Security (French:Régiment de la Sécurité Présidentielle – RSP). Reports have emerged in recent years of disputes over pay and conditions.[162] There is an air force with some 19 operational aircraft, but no navy, as the country is landlocked. Military expenses constitute approximately 1.2% of the nation's GDP.
Burkina Faso employs numerous police and security forces, generally modeled after organizations used byFrench police. France continues to provide significant support and training to police forces. TheGendarmerie Nationale is organized along military lines, with most police services delivered at the brigade level. TheGendarmerie operates under the authority of the Minister of Defence, and its members are employed chiefly in the rural areas and along borders.[163]
There is a municipal police force controlled by theMinistry of Territorial Administration, a national police force controlled by the Ministry of Security, and an autonomousRegiment of Presidential Security (Régiment de la Sécurité Présidentielle, or RSP), a 'palace guard' devoted to the protection of the President of the Republic. Both the gendarmerie and the national police are subdivided into both administrative and judicial police functions; the former are detailed to protect public order and provide security, the latter are charged with criminal investigations.[163]
All foreigners and citizens are required to carry photo ID passports, or other forms of identification or risk a fine, and police spot identity checks are commonplace for persons traveling by auto,bush-taxi, or bus.[164][165]
GDP per capita in Burkina Faso, since 1950Processing facilities at the Essakane Mine in Burkina FasoTheGrand marché inKoudougou, Burkina FasoThe railway station inBobo Dioulasso was built during the colonial era and remains in operation.
Burkina Faso remains one of the least developed countries in the world, with an economy based primarily on subsistence farming and livestock raising. The country has an average income purchasing-power-parity per capita of $2,980 and nominal per capita of $1,110 in 2025. More than 80% of the population relies on subsistence agriculture, with only a small fraction directly involved in industry and services. A large part of the economic activity of the country is funded by international aid, despite having gold ores in abundance.
Burkina Faso's economy showed signs of recovery in recent years. According to the World Bank, the economy grew by 4.9% in 2024 compared to 3.0% in 2023. Real per capita GDP growth also increased from 0.7% to 2.5% over the same period. This acceleration was attributed mainly to the performance of services and agriculture, supported by an improved security situation, favorable weather conditions, and increased government support to the agriculture sector.
However, inflation increased in 2024 to 4.2% from 0.7% in 2023, driven by spikes in food prices caused by market speculation linked to a late start to the rainy season. Despite this, the strong growth in the agriculture and services sectors in 2024 reduced the extreme poverty rate by 3 points to 23.2%, with a sharper decline in rural areas. Nevertheless, the absolute number of people living in poverty remains high, exceeding 5.5 million.
The country faces significant economic challenges, including highly variable rainfall patterns, poor soils, lack of adequate communications and other infrastructure, low literacy rate, high population density with few natural resources, and fragile soil conditions.
Key economic indicators for Burkina Faso[166][167]
Agriculture represents approximately 32% of Burkina Faso's gross domestic product and occupies 80% of the working population. It consists mostly of rearing livestock, especially in the south and southwest, where people grow crops ofsorghum,pearl millet, maize (corn), peanuts, rice and cotton, with surpluses to be sold. Cotton is the main cash crop.
There is mining ofcopper,iron,manganese,gold,cassiterite (tin ore), and phosphates.[168] These operations provide employment and generate international aid. Gold production increased 32% in 2011 at six gold mine sites, making Burkina Faso the fourth-largest gold producer in Africa, after South Africa, Mali and Ghana.[169]
Gold accounts for roughly 70% of Burkina Faso's export earnings. With production of 66.9 tons valued at $7.18 billion, gold accounted for an estimated 16% of Burkina Faso's gross domestic product in 2023. However, since then, gold production has declined dramatically owing to growing insecurity, which has led to the closure of 7 out of the country's 17 industrial mines (Inata, Taparko, Karma, Boungou, Youga, Nétiana, Yaramoko). The junta has also nationalized five mines. Industrial gold production has subsequently dropped by 20% to 53.4 tons.
Zabsone et al. (2020) show find that gold extraction increases household expenditures and reduces poverty rates in producing municipalities. Nevertheless, it also increased inequality and child labor.[170]
The value of Burkina Faso's exports fell from $2.77 billion in 2011 to $754 million in 2012.[171]
The top five export commodities in 2017 were, in order of importance: gems and precious metals, US$1.9 billion (78.5% of total exports), cotton, $198.7 million (8.3%), ores, slag, ash, $137.6 million (5.8%), fruits, nuts: $76.6 million (3.2%) and oil seeds: $59.5 million (2.5%).[172]
In 2023, exports totaled $5.87 billion while imports were $7.31 billion, resulting in a trade deficit. The current account deficit improved from 8.0% of GDP in 2023 to 6.4% in 2024, due to the rise in gold prices which boosted the value of exports.
The economic outlook for Burkina Faso remains subject to multiple significant risks. The fragile security situation continues to threaten economic gains, with ongoing instability potentially disrupting key sectors. Climate shocks, particularly irregular rainfall patterns, persistently affect agricultural production and food security. Debt refinancing presents substantial challenges, requiring careful management of the country's financial obligations. The financial sector remains vulnerable due to banks' overexposure to the cotton sector, creating systemic risks. Foreign investment has declined precipitously since the military coup, with FDI inflows dropping from $670 million in 2022 to $83 million in 2024, severely limiting capital for development projects.[167]
The World Bank recommends strengthening the mobilization and efficiency of public resources through several key measures. These include continuous modernization of the tax administration, broadening of the tax base, optimization of public spending, improving debt management strategies, and mobilizing more concessional financing to support sustainable development.[173]
Whileservices remain underdeveloped, the National Office for Water and Sanitation (ONEA), astate-ownedutility company run along commercial lines, is emerging as one of the best-performing utility companies in Africa.[174] High levels of autonomy and a skilled and dedicated management have driven ONEA's ability to improve production of and access to clean water.[174]
Since 2000, nearly 2 million more people have access to water in the four principal urban centres in the country; the company has kept the quality ofinfrastructure high (less than 18% of the water is lost through leaks – one of the lowest insub-Saharan Africa), improved financial reporting, and increased its annual revenue by an average of 12% (well above inflation).[174] Challenges remain, including difficulties among some customers in paying for services, with the need to rely on international aid to expand its infrastructure.[174] The state-owned, commercially run venture has helped the nation reach itsMillennium Development Goal (MDG) targets in water-related areas, and has grown as a viable company.[174]
However, access to drinking water has improved over the last 28 years. According to UNICEF, access to drinking water has increased from 39 to 76% in rural areas between 1990 and 2015. In this same time span, access to drinking water increased from 75 to 97% in urban areas.[175]
Access to electricity remains limited in Burkina Faso, with a rate well below the regional average. This situation constitutes a major obstacle to inclusive growth and reduces economic opportunities for a large part of the population, particularly in rural areas.
A 33-megawatt solar power plant in Zagtouli, near Ouagadougou, came online in late November 2017. At the time of its construction, it was the largest solar power facility in West Africa.[176]
Transport in Burkina Faso is limited by relatively underdeveloped infrastructure.
As of June 2014 the main international airport,Ouagadougou Airport, had regularly scheduled flights to many destinations in West Africa as well as Paris,Brussels andIstanbul. The other international airport,Bobo Dioulasso Airport, has flights to Ouagadougou andAbidjan.
In 2009, Burkina Faso spent 0.20% of GDP on research and development (R&D), one of the lowest ratios in West Africa. There were 48 researchers (in full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants in 2010, which is more than twice the average for sub-Saharan Africa (20 per million population in 2013) and higher than the ratio forGhana andNigeria (39). It is, however, much lower than the ratio forSenegal (361 per million inhabitants). In Burkina Faso in 2010, 46% of researchers were working in the health sector, 16% in engineering, 13% in natural sciences, 9% in agricultural sciences, 7% in the humanities and 4% in social sciences.[179]
In January 2011, the government created the Ministry of Scientific Research and Innovation. Up until then, management of science, technology and innovation had fallen under the Department of Secondary and Higher Education and Scientific Research. Within this ministry, the Directorate General for Research and Sector Statistics is responsible for planning. A separate body, the Directorate General of Scientific Research, Technology and Innovation, coordinates research. This is a departure from the pattern in many other West African countries where a single body fulfills both functions. The move signals the government's intention to make science and technology a development priority.[179] Burkina Faso was ranked 126th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2025.[180][181]
Burkina Faso is part of theWest African Monetary and Economic Union (UMEOA) and has adopted theCFA franc. This is issued by theCentral Bank of the West African States (BCEAO), situated inDakar, Senegal. The BCEAO manages the monetary and reserve policy of the member states, and provides regulation and oversight of financial sector and banking activity. A legal framework regarding licensing, bank activities, organizational and capital requirements, inspections and sanctions (all applicable to all countries of the Union) is in place, having been reformed significantly in 1999.Microfinance institutions are governed by a separate law, which regulates microfinance activities in all WAEMU countries. The insurance sector is regulated through the Inter-African Conference on Insurance Markets (CIMA).[182]
Burkina Faso is an ethnically integrated, secular state where most people are concentrated in the south and centre, where their density sometimes exceeds 48 inhabitants per square kilometre (120/sq mi). Hundreds of thousands of Burkinabè migrate regularly to Ivory Coast and Ghana, mainly for seasonal agricultural work. These flows of workers are affected by external events; the September 2002 coup attempt in Ivory Coast and the ensuing fighting meant that hundreds of thousands of Burkinabè returned to Burkina Faso. The regional economy suffered when they were unable to work.[187]
Thetotal fertility rate of Burkina Faso was estimated to be 4.02 children born per woman in 2024, the 23rd highest in the world.[1]
In 2009 theU.S. Department of State'sTrafficking in Persons Report reported thatslavery in Burkina Faso continued to exist and that Burkinabè children were often the victims.[188] Slavery in theSahel states in general, is an entrenched institution with a long history that dates back to thetrans-Saharan slave trade.[189] In 2018, an estimated 82,000 people in the country were living under "modern slavery" according to the Global Slavery Index.[190]
Burkina Faso's 23 million people belong to two major West African ethnic cultural groups: theVoltaic and theMandé (whose common language isDioula). The VoltaicMossi make up about one-half of the population. The Mossi claim descent from warriors who migrated to present-day Burkina Faso fromnorthern Ghana around 1100 AD. They established an empire that lasted more than 800 years. Predominantly farmers, the Mossi kingdom is led by theMogho Naba, whose court is in Ouagadougou.[187] There are approximately 5,000 Europeans.[192]
Burkina Faso is amultilingual country. Theworking languages areFrench, which was introduced during the colonial period, andEnglish.[18] In December 2023, due to deteriorating relations between Burkina Faso and the French government, the Burkina Faso government announced it was elevatingMooré,Bissa,Dyula andFula to the status of official languages.French was dropped as an official language, becoming aworking language withEnglish instead.[193][194] Altogether, an estimated 69 languages are spoken in the country,[195] of which about 60 languages areindigenous. The Mooré language is the most spoken language in Burkina Faso, spoken by about half the population, mainly in the central region around the capital, Ouagadougou.
According to the 2006 census, the languages spoken natively in Burkina Faso wereMooré by 40.5% of the population,Fula by 9.3%,Gourmanché by 6.1%,Bambara by 4.9%,Bissa by 3.2%,Bwamu by 2.1%,Dagara by 2%,San by 1.9%,Lobiri with 1.8%,Lyélé with 1.7%,Bobo andSénoufo with 1.4% each,Nuni by 1.2%,Dafing by 1.1%,Tamasheq by 1%,Kassem by 0.7%,Gouin by 0.4%,Dogon,Songhai, andGourounsi by 0.3% each, Ko,Koussassé,Sembla, andSiamou by 0.1% each, other national languages by 5%, other African languages by 0.2%, French (the official language) by 1.3%, and other non-indigenous languages by 0.1%.[196]
In the west,Mandé languages are widely spoken, the most predominant beingDyula (also known as Jula or Dioula), others includingBobo,Samo, andMarka.Fula is widespread, particularly in the north.Gourmanché is spoken in the east, whileBissa is spoken in the south.
Thegovernment of Burkina Faso's 2019 census reported that 63.8% of the population practiced Islam, and that the majority of this group belong to theSunni branch,[14][197] while a small minority adheres toShia Islam.[198] A significant number of Sunni Muslims identify with theTijaniyahSufi order.
The 2019 census also found that 26.3% of the population were Christians (20.1% being Roman Catholics and 6.2% members of Protestant denominations) and 9.0% followedtraditional indigenous beliefs such as theDogon religion, 0.2% followed other religions, and 0.7% were non-religious.[14][197]
Animists are the largest religious group in the country'sSud-Ouest region, forming 48.1% of its total population.[14]
In 2016, the average life expectancy was estimated at 60 for males and 61 for females. In 2018, the under-five mortality rate and the infant mortality rate was 76 per 1000 live births.[199] In 2024, the median age of its inhabitants was 18 and the estimated population growth rate was 2.4%.[1]
In 2011, health expenditures was 6.5% of GDP; the maternal mortality ratio was estimated at 300 deaths per 100000 live births and the physician density at 0.05 per 1000 population in 2010. In 2012, it was estimated that the adult HIVprevalence rate (ages 15–49) was 1.0%.[200] According to the 2011 UNAIDS Report, HIV prevalence is declining among pregnant women who attend antenatal clinics.[201] According to a 2005 World Health Organization report, an estimated 72.5% of Burkina Faso's girls and women have hadfemale genital mutilation, administered according to traditional rituals.[202]
Central government spending on health was 3% in 2001.[203] As of 2009[update], studies estimated there were as few as 10 physicians per 100,000 people.[204] In addition, there were 41 nurses and 13 midwives per 100,000 people.[204]Demographic and Health Surveys has completed three surveys in Burkina Faso since 1993, and had another in 2009.[205]
TheGando primary school, designed byDiébédo Francis Kéré. The innovative clay/cement hybrid structure provides thermal protection and natural ventilation, addressing characteristic problems of educational buildings in the region. Kéré received theAga Khan Award for Architecture in 2004 for this design.
Education in Burkina Faso is divided into primary, secondary and higher education. The Education Act makes schooling compulsory from age 6 to 16, with French as the official language of instruction.
By law, education is free, but the government lacks adequate resources to provide universal free primary education. Children must pay for school supplies, and communities are often responsible for constructing primary school buildings and teachers' housing. Children from poor families can receive tuition-free education through junior high and high school if their grades qualify.
High school costs approximately CFA 25,000 (US$50) per year, which is far above the means of most Burkinabè families. Boys receive preference in schooling; as such, girls' education and literacy rates are far lower than their male counterparts. An increase in girls' schooling has been observed because of the government's policy of making school cheaper for girls and granting them more scholarships.
To proceed from primary to middle school, middle to high school or high school to college, national exams must be passed. Institutions of higher education include theUniversity of Ouagadougou,The Polytechnic University of Bobo-Dioulasso, and theUniversity of Koudougou, which is also a teacher training institution. There are some small private colleges in the capital city ofOuagadougou but these are affordable to only a small portion of the population.
Higher education provision is highly centralized in Ouagadougou. The University of Ouagadougou had around 40,000 students (83% of the national population of university students) in 2010/2011, the University of Koudougou had 5,600 students, and the Polytechnic University of Bobo-Dioulasso had 2,600. The private universities each had less than 1,000 students. Supervision rates vary significantly between institutions - at the University of Ouagadougou there is one lecturer for every 24 students, while at The Polytechnic University of Bobo-Dioulasso there is one lecturer for every three students.
As of 2023, the gross enrollment ratio for tertiary education among males was reported at 12.1%. The gross enrollment ratio represents the ratio of total enrollment, regardless of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown.
The 2008 UN Development Program Report ranked Burkina Faso as the country with the lowest level of literacy in the world, despite a concerted effort to double its literacy rate from 12.8% in 1990 to 25.3% in 2008.
Several factors continue to influence educational outcomes in Burkina Faso, such as the limited number of actual schools, particularly in rural areas, and a shortage of qualified instructors, especially for higher education. Families must pay for school supplies and school fees despite nominal free education, and there is widespread poverty with very low family incomes. There is the opportunity costs of sending children to school rather than having them contribute to family income. Another factor is language barriers, as education is conducted primarily in French while only approximately 15% of Burkinabè speak French as a first language. [citation needed]
According to theGlobal Hunger Index, a multidimensional tool used to measure and track a country's hunger levels,[208] Burkina Faso ranked 65 out of 78 countries in 2013.[209] It is estimated that there are currently over 1.5 million children who are at risk of food insecurity in Burkina Faso, with around 350,000 children who are in need of emergency medical assistance.[209] However, only about a third of these children will actually receive adequate medical attention.[210] Only 11.4 percent of children under the age of two receive the daily recommended number of meals.[209] Stunted growth as a result of food insecurity is a severe problem in Burkina Faso, affecting at least a third of the population from 2008 to 2012.[211] Additionally, stunted children, on average, tend to complete less school than children with normal growth development,[210] further contributing to the low levels of education of the Burkina Faso population.[212]
TheEuropean Commission expects that approximately 500,000 children under age 5 in Burkina Faso will suffer from acute malnutrition in 2015, including around 149,000 who will suffer from its most life-threatening form.[213] Rates of micronutrient deficiencies are also high.[214] According to theDemographic and Health Survey (DHS 2010), 49 percent of women and 88 percent of children under the age of five suffer from anemia.[214] Forty percent of infant deaths can be attributed tomalnutrition, and in turn, these infant mortality rates have decreased Burkina Faso's total work force by 13.6 percent, demonstrating how food security affects more aspects of life beyond health.[209]
These high rates of food insecurity and the accompanying effects are even more prevalent in rural populations compared to urban ones, as access to health services in rural areas is much more limited and awareness and education of children's nutritional needs is lower.[215]
An October 2018 report byUSAid stated that droughts and floods remained problematic, and that "violence and insecurity are disrupting markets, trade and livelihoods activities in some parts of Burkina Faso's northern and eastern areas". The report estimated that over 954,300 people needed food security support, and that, according toUNICEF, an "estimated 187,200 children under 5 years of age will experience severe acute malnutrition". Agencies providing assistance at the time included USAID's Office of Food for Peace (FFP) working with the UNWorld Food Programme, the NGOOxfam Intermón andACDI/VOCA.[216]
The United Nations'World Food Programme has worked on programs that are geared towards increasing food security in Burkina Faso.The Protracted Relief and Recovery Operation 200509 (PRRO) was formed to respond to the high levels of malnutrition in Burkina Faso, following the food and nutrition crisis in 2012.[217] The efforts of this project are mostly geared towards the treatment and prevention of malnutrition and include take home rations for the caretakers of those children who are being treated for malnutrition.[217] Additionally, the activities of this operation contribute to families' abilities to withstand future food crises. Better nutrition among the two most vulnerable groups, young children and pregnant women, prepares them to be able to respond better in times when food security is compromised, such as in droughts.[217]
The Country Programme (CP) has two parts: food and nutritional assistance to people with HIV/AIDS, and a school feeding program for all primary schools in the Sahel region.[218] The HIV/AIDS nutrition program aims to better the nutritional recovery of those who are living with HIV/AIDS and to protect at-risk children and orphans from malnutrition and food security.[218] As part of the school feeding component, the Country Programme's goals are to increase enrollment and attendance in schools in the Sahel region, where enrollment rates are below the national average.[217] Furthermore, the program aims at improving gender parity rates in these schools, by providing girls with high attendance in the last two years of primary school with take-home rations of cereals as an incentive to households, encouraging them to send their girls to school.[217]
The WFP concluded the formation of a subsequently approved plan in August 2018 "to support the Government's vision of 'a democratic, unified and united nation, transforming the structure of its economy and achieving a strong and inclusive growth through patterns of sustainable consumption and production.' It will take important steps in WFP's new strategic direction for strengthened national and local capacities to enable the Government and communities to own, manage, and implement food and nutrition security programmes by 2030".[219]
One of the main projects theWorld Bank is working on to reduce food insecurity in Burkina Faso is the Agricultural Productivity and Food Security Project.[220] According to the World Bank, the objective of this project is to "improve the capacity of poor producers to increase food production and to ensure improved availability of food products in rural markets."[220] The Agricultural Productivity and Food Security Project has three main parts. Its first component is to work towards the improvement of food production, including financing grants and providing 'voucher for work' programs for households who cannot pay their contribution in cash.[220] The project's next component involves improving the availability of food products, particularly in rural areas.[220] This includes supporting the marketing of food products, and aims to strengthen the capabilities of stakeholders to control the variability of food products and supplies at local and national levels.[220] Lastly, the third component of this project focuses on institutional development and capacity building. Its goal is to reinforce the capacities of service providers and institutions who are specifically involved in project implementation.[220] The project's activities aim to build capacities of service providers, strengthen the capacity of food producer organizations, strengthen agricultural input supply delivery methods, and manage and evaluate project activities.[220]
The December 2018 report by the World Bank indicated that the poverty rate fell slightly between 2009 and 2014, from 46% to a still high 40.1%. The report provided this updated summary of the country's development challenges: "Burkina Faso remains vulnerable to climatic shocks related to changes in rainfall patterns and to fluctuations in the prices of its export commodities on world markets. Its economic and social development will, to some extent, be contingent on political stability in the country and the sub-regions, its openness to international trade, and export diversification".[221]
Literature in Burkina Faso is based on theoral tradition, which remains important. In 1934, during French occupation, Dim-Dolobsom Ouedraogo published hisMaximes, pensées et devinettes mossi (Maxims, Thoughts and Riddles of the Mossi), a record of the oral history of theMossi people.[222]
The oral tradition continued to have an influence on Burkinabè writers in the post-independence Burkina Faso of the 1960s, such asNazi Boni and Roger Nikiema.[223] The 1960s saw a growth in the number of playwrights being published.[222] Since the 1970s, literature has developed in Burkina Faso with many more writers being published.[224]
Thetheatre of Burkina Faso combines traditional Burkinabè performance with the colonial influences and post-colonial efforts to educate rural people to produce a distinctive national theatre. Traditional ritual ceremonies of the many ethnic groups in Burkina Faso have long involved dancing withmasks. Western-style theatre became common during colonial times, heavily influenced byFrench theatre. With independence came a new style of theatre inspired byforum theatre aimed at educating and entertaining Burkina Faso's rural people.[citation needed]
Malika Outtara, poet
Slam poetry is increasing in popularity in the country, in part due to the efforts of slam poetMalika Outtara.[225] She uses her skills to raise awareness around issues such as blood donation, albinism and the impact of COVID-19.[226][227]
Artisan garland of decorative paintedgourds in Ouagadougou
In addition to several rich traditional artistic heritages among the peoples, there is a large artist community in Burkina Faso, especially in Ouagadougou. Much of the crafts produced are for the country's growing tourist industry.
Burkina Faso also hosts the International Art and Craft Fair, Ouagadougou. It is better known by its French name asSIAO,Le Salon International de l' Artisanat de Ouagadougou, and is one of the most important African handicraft fairs.
The music of Burkina Faso includes thefolk music of 60 differentethnic groups. TheMossi people, centrally located around Ouagadougou, account for 40% of the population while, to the south,Gurunsi,Gurma,Dagaaba andLobi populations, speakingGur languages closely related to theMossi language, extend into the coastal states. In the north and east theFulani of theSahel preponderate, while in the south and west theMande languages are common;Samo,Bissa,Bobo,Senufo andMarka. Burkinabé traditional music has continued to thrive and musical output remains quite diverse. Popular music is mostly in French. Burkina Faso has yet to produce a major pan-African success.
The nation's principal media outlet is its state-sponsored combined television and radio service,Radio Télévision du Burkina (RTB).[228] RTB broadcasts on twomedium-wave (AM) and severalFM frequencies. Besides RTB, there are privately owned sports, cultural, music, and religious FM radio stations. RTB maintains a worldwide short-wave news broadcast (Radio Nationale Burkina) in the French language from Ouagadougou using a 100 kW transmitter on 4.815 and 5.030 MHz.[229]
Attempts to develop an independent press and media in Burkina Faso have been intermittent. In 1998, investigative journalistNorbert Zongo, his brother Ernest, his driver, and another man were assassinated by unknown assailants, and the bodies burned. The crime was never solved.[230] However, an independent Commission of Inquiry later concluded that Norbert Zongo was killed for political reasons because of his investigative work into the death of David Ouedraogo, a chauffeur who worked for François Compaoré, President Blaise Compaoré's brother.[231][232]
In January 1999, François Compaoré was charged with the murder of David Ouedraogo, who had died as a result of torture in January 1998. The charges were later dropped by a military tribunal after an appeal. In August 2000, five members of the President's personal security guard detail (Régiment de la Sécurité Présidentielle, or RSP) were charged with the murder of Ouedraogo. RSP members Marcel Kafando, Edmond Koama, and Ousseini Yaro, investigated as suspects in the Norbert Zongo assassination, were convicted in the Ouedraogo case and sentenced to lengthy prison terms.[231][232] Because of his role in the Zongo affair, François Compaoré was arrested on 29 October 2017 by French police on his return from Abidjan.[233] His extradition to Burkina Faso was annulled by the ECHR, following an appeal lodged by his lawyerFrançois-Henri Briard.[234]
Since the death of Norbert Zongo, several protests regarding the Zongo investigation and treatment of journalists have been prevented or dispersed by government police and security forces. In April 2007, popular radio reggae hostKarim Sama, whose programs feature reggae songs interspersed with critical commentary on alleged government injustice and corruption, received several death threats.[235]
Sama's personal car was later burned outside the private radio station Ouaga FM by unknown vandals.[236] In response, theCommittee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) wrote to President Compaoré to request his government investigate the sending of e-mailed death threats to journalists and radio commentators in Burkina Faso who were critical of the government.[230] In December 2008, police in Ouagadougou questioned leaders of a protest march that called for a renewed investigation into the unsolved Zongo assassination. Among the marchers was Jean-Claude Meda, the president of the Association of Journalists of Burkina Faso.[237]
Thecinema of Burkina Faso is an important part of the West African film industry and African film as a whole.[238] Burkina's contribution toAfrican cinema started with the establishment of the film festivalFESPACO (Festival Panafricain du Cinéma et de la Télévision de Ouagadougou), which was launched as a film week in 1969. Many of the nation's filmmakers are known internationally and have won international prizes.
For many years the headquarters of thePan African Federation of Filmmakers (FEPACI) was in Ouagadougou, rescued in 1983 from a period of moribund inactivity by the enthusiastic support and funding ofPresident Sankara. (In 2006 the Secretariat of FEPACI moved to South Africa, but the headquarters of the organization is still in Ouagadougou.) Among the best known directors from Burkina Faso areGaston Kaboré,Idrissa Ouedraogo, andDani Kouyate.[239] Burkina produces popular television series such asLes Bobodiouf. Internationally known filmmakers such as Ouedraogo, Kabore, Yameogo, and Kouyate make popular television series.
Typical of West African cuisine, Burkina Faso's cuisine is based onstaple foods ofsorghum,millet, rice, maize, peanuts, potatoes,beans,yams andokra.[240] The most common sources of animal protein are chicken, chicken eggs and freshwater fish. A typical Burkinabè beverage isbanji or palm wine, which is fermentedpalm sap; and zoom-kom, or "grain water" purportedly the national drink of Burkina Faso. Zoom-kom is milky-looking and whitish, having a water and cereal base, best drunk with ice cubes. In the more rural regions, in the outskirts of Burkina,dolo, a drink made from fermented millet, may be found.[241] In times of crisis, one legume native to Burkina,zamnè, can be served as a main dish or in a sauce.[242]
Held every two years since 1988, theInternational Art and Craft Fair, Ouagadougou (SIAO), is one of Africa's most important trade shows for art and handicrafts (late October-early November, even years).
TheNational Culture Week of Burkina Faso, better known by its French nameLa semaine nationale de la culture (SNC), is one of the most important cultural activities of Burkina Faso. It is a biennial event which takes place every two years in Bobo Dioulasso, the second-largest city in the country.
Sport in Burkina Faso is widespread and includes football, basketball, cycling, rugby union,handball, tennis, boxing and martial arts. Football is the most popular sport in Burkina Faso, played both professionally, and informally in towns and villages across the country. The national team is nicknamed "Les Etalons" ("the Stallions") in reference to the legendary horse of PrincessYennenga.[citation needed]
In 1998, Burkina Faso hosted theAfrica Cup of Nations for which the Omnisport Stadium in Bobo-Dioulasso was built. Burkina Faso qualified for the2013 African Cup of Nations in South Africa and reached the final, but then lost to Nigeria 0–1. The country has never qualified for aFIFA World Cup.[243]
Basketball is another sport which enjoys much popularity for both men and women.[244] The country'smen's national team had its most successful year in 2013 when it qualified for theAfroBasket, the continent's prime basketball event.
At the2020 Summer Olympics, the athleteHugues Fabrice Zango won Burkina Faso's first Olympic medal, winning bronze in themen's triple jump.[245] Zango also won the gold medal in the triple jump at the 2023 world championships. Cricket is also picking up in Burkina Faso with Cricket Burkina Faso running a ten-club league.[246]
^Roy, Christopher D. "Countries of Africa: Burkina Faso," Art and Life in Africa,"Countries Resources". Archived fromthe original on 15 January 2014. Retrieved14 April 2014.
^Miller, D. E.; Van Der Merwe, N. J. (2009). "Early Metal Working in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Recent Research".The Journal of African History.35 (1):1–36.doi:10.1017/S0021853700025949.JSTOR182719.S2CID162330270.
^Stuiver, Minze; van der Merwe, Nicolaas J. (1968). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa".Current Anthropology.9 (1):54–58.doi:10.1086/200878.JSTOR2740446.S2CID145379030.
^More (Language of the Mossi Tribe) Phrase Book – "Burkina Faso is a former French colony, which became the independent state of Upper Volta in 1960. In 1984 the country adopted its present name, meaning "Land of Incorruptible People".
^Manning, Patrick (1998).Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa: 1880–1995. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 126.ISBN978-0-521-64519-5.The name of the country was changed to Burkina Faso, and Sankara launched it on an aggressive, populist program of self-help.
^The name is anamalgam ofMoreburkina ("honest", "upright", or "incorruptible men") andJulafaso ("homeland"; literally "father's house"). The "-be" suffix in the name for the people – Burkinabe – comes from the Fula plural suffix for people,-ɓe.
^abOmar, Farid (28 November 2007)."Commemorating Thomas Sankara".Group for Research and Initiative for the Liberation of Africa (GRILA). Archived fromthe original on 24 January 2012.
^Reardon, Thomas (1996). "Agroclimatic Shock, Income Inequality, and Poverty: Evidence from Burkina Faso".World Development.24 (5):901–914.doi:10.1016/0305-750x(96)00009-5.
^"Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank".Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels. Retrieved12 December 2024.
^Spaas, Lieve (2000) "Burkina Faso," inThe Francophone Film: A Struggle for Identity, pp. 232–246. Manchester: Manchester University Press,ISBN0-7190-5861-9.
^Turégano, Teresa Hoefert (2005)African Cinema and Europe: Close-Up on Burkina Faso, Florence: European Press Academic,ISBN88-8398-031-X.
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