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TheBuddhist traditions have created and maintained a vast body ofmythological literature. The central myth ofBuddhism revolves around the purported events of the life of theBuddha. This is told in relatively realistic terms in theearliest texts, and was soon elaborated into acomplex literary mythology. The chief motif of this story, and the most distinctive feature of Buddhist myth, is the Buddha'srenunciation: leaving his home and family for aspiritual quest. Alongside this central myth, the traditions contain large numbers of smaller stories, which are usually supposed to convey an ethical or Buddhist teaching. These include the popularJātakas, folk tales or legends believed to bepast lives ofGautama Buddha. Since these are regarded as episodes in the life of the Buddha, they are treated here as “myth”, rather than distinguishing between myth, legend, and folk-tale.[1]
Buddhist mythology is maintained intexts, but these have always existed alongsideoral traditions of storytelling, as well as creative retellings of myths as drama orartworks.[2][3][4][5] This creative mythology continues to this day, and includesfilm,television, andmusical adaptions of Buddhist myths.
Myth has always been an important part of the way Buddhists see themselves and form communities. Attitudes to myths vary, with some people seeing the stories as entirely factual, while others see them as symbolic. In this article, as in scholarly study of mythology generally, the use of the term “myth” does not imply a value or truth judgement. Rather, it refers to the study of sacred stories and their meaning within a community.
Scholars have long recognized that Buddhism contains one of the world's great mythologies.TW Rhys Davids said that the Jātakas are “the most reliable, the most complete, and the most ancient collection of folklore now extant in any literature in the world.”[6]CAF Rhys Davids said that the Jātakas are “collectively the greatest epic, in literature, of the Ascent of Man”.[7]Joseph Campbell discussed the life of the Buddha extensively in hisThe Hero with a Thousand Faces, relying on the later Buddha legends.[8] However, modern examination of Buddhist mythology is rare, and critics have argued that the emphasis on rationality inBuddhist modernism has obscured the role of mythology in Buddhist communities both past and present.
Mythology in Buddhism is used at various intellectual levels in order to give symbolic and sometimes quasi-historical expression to religious teachings. As noted by scholars such asThomas Rhys Davids, theearliest texts of Buddhism (such as theNikāyas andĀgamas) do not present a single coherent and systematic biography of the Buddha.[9] However, there are various references to numerous life events in these texts, and in a few cases gives more extensive accounts of important events in the Buddha's life. All later versions of the Buddha's life derive primarily from these sources. These include:
Most of the relevant texts from the Pali canon have been gathered and arranged inBhikkhu Ñāṇamoli's The Life of the Buddha.Bhikkhu Sujato has shown that the events of the Buddha's life in the early texts fulfill almost all the stages of Campbell'sHero's Journey, despite the fact that they are not arranged as a coherent narrative. The Hero's Journey becomes much more prominent and complete in later versions of the story.[22]
The early texts also include references to Indian deities (devas), extraordinary beings such asYakkhas,Nagas and other mythic content.
One of the “three knowledges” (tevijjā) of the Buddha was recollecting past lives. However, early texts contain very few actual narratives of past lives.[23] Such stories as are found in the early texts almost always show signs of belonging to the latest strata of those texts.[24] However, in a short time the Buddhist community developed a vast repertoire of stories associated with the Buddha's past lives, known as theJātakas. There are 550 such stories in thePali canon, and hundreds more in Chinese, Tibetan, and Sanskrit sources. Several Jātakas are depicted in visual form on the monuments atSanchi, dating around the 1st century BCE. The corpus of Jātaka stories continued to grow over the centuries. Some of the most popular continue to be theMahanipata Jataka which depict the final ten lives of the Buddha before his last birth.
The Jātakas appear to be mostly derived from vernacular Indianfolk tales,fables and legends in mixed prose and verse.[25][26] Like the lives of the Buddha, they are not sectarian, as many Jātakas are shared among traditions. Some of the stories are related toBrahmanical legends, such as those found in theRāmayaṇa andMahābharata, while others show similarities toAesop's fables and other world literature. While most of the Jātakas contain a “moral”, in most cases these pertain to simple and universal ideas, such as non-violence or honesty, and only a few of the stories feature distinctively Buddhist ideas. A typical Jātaka tale features a conflict or challenge, which the hero overcomes through his courage, intelligence, or other virtues. The hero of the story is identified with the Buddha, while other characters in the story are often identified with familiar associates of the Buddha, such as his close disciples, family, or Devadatta as the antagonist.
Since the Jātakas are in essence the preliminary chapters of the Buddha's spiritual development, they are sometimes included together with the Buddha's life. In the Pali sources, for example, the life of the Buddha is featured as the opening framing narrative of the Jātaka collection.
There is a similar class of literature known asApadāna. Originally the term seems to have simply meant a tale of the past, as the Mahāpadāna Sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya tells the story of a Buddha in a past age. However it came to refer to a class of stories about the past lives of the Buddha's monk and nun disciples. These often depict how enlightened disciples of the Buddha achieved that status by making offerings to a Buddha in a past life.
The doctrinal texts (suttas) of the early period contain little narrative and less myth. However, in the texts on monastic discipline (Vinaya), each rule or procedure must be preceded by an origin story. These are frequently simple narratives that merely give a context for the rule. However, in several cases the narrative is developed and includes significant mythic motifs. Most of these occur in relation to important events in the Buddha's life, especially those involving his family. But they also occur independently.
Erich Frauwallner argued that the portion of Vinaya known as theKhandhakas was formed around one of the earliest versions of the Buddha's life story.[27] Later Vinaya texts such as theMūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya and theMahāvastu added even more mythic material while some texts also arose out of this material becoming detached from the Vinaya and beginning to circulate as independent biographies of the Buddha.[28]
Some of the myths told in the Vinayas include:
While the early texts were mostly completed in the pre-Ashokan period, the post-Ashokan period saw the widespread adoption of Buddhism as a popular religion. At this time, Buddhism was spreading across the Indian subcontinent and beyond, andseveral distinct schools were emerging in different regions. It seems likely that each school would have used the life of the Buddha as a primary teaching vehicle. Several distinctive versions of this story survive. While these vary greatly in their literary forms, there is little doctrinal difference between them. Such texts include the following:
Despite the fact that these texts emerged in different schools over a long period, in different literary forms, they each share a range of motifs in the Buddha's life that is not found in the early texts. Such motifs include:
Many of these motifs are represented in early artwork, and one of the motivating factors in such developments was to present the teachings in a way that could form a dramatic personal story, which could be visually represented. For example, the Padhāna Sutta,[35] an early text, depicts the assault of Māra in purely psychological terms, while the developed versions imagine a vast army of demons attacking the Buddha, an image which is frequently depicted in Buddhist artwork.
These later works also show a much greater emphasis on the miraculous and extraordinary character of the Buddha, as they depict him more like a godlike being in contrast to the earlier texts.[36] These developments in the mythology have their counterparts in the more philosophical texts, where the Buddha is conceived as omniscient and with trascendental powers (lokuttara).
Buddhist mythology contains legends ofthe Buddhas of past ages, such asVipassi. An important source for these is the PaliTheravādaBuddhavamsa (Buddha Chronicle) which chronicles the stories of 24 past Buddhas.[37]
Buddhist works also include a wide range of prophetic myths, which speak of future events. As with the Jātakas, there are a few such stories in the early texts. The most famous is theCakkavatti Sīhanāda Sutta of theDīgha Nikāya. This is the only early text to mentionMetteyya, the future Buddha. It is an apocalyptic text, which predicts that humanity's moral conduct will decline so far that civilization will utterly break down. After a long time society will reform, based on the principle of non-violence, and ultimately a golden age will arrive, with the future Buddha Metteyya as the teacher of that age.
Later texts such as theMaitreyavyakarana introduceMahayana elements to the prophetic story of Maitreya.[38] A complex mythology developed around themessianic figure of the future BuddhaMaitreya, which has inspired multiple Buddhist cults of both the past and the present. He became an influential figure in themillennarian andmessianic movements throughout East Asia. According to Paul Williams, there were "nine such movements in China in the fifth and early sixth centuries alone."[39]
Buddhist traditions contain large numbers of stories and spiritual narratives in addition to the above. These are often simple moral fables, similar to Jātakas. In some cases, mythic complexes can be discerned that have no counterparts in the orthodox texts, but are found widely in popular culture. Various figures other than the Buddha appear in these myths, including Buddhist kings, important monastics and saints, as well as heavenly beings or gods (devas).
Indian kings feature in many Buddhist stories and myths. The earliest texts speak of various kings paying respects to the Buddha such asPasenadi ofKosala andBimbisara ofMagadha. The Buddhist myths which developed around the famedMauryan emperorAshoka (recorded in texts such as theAshokavadana) as well as other Buddhist monarchs such as the indo GreekMilinda (Menander I) and Sri Lankan Buddhist kings (in texts like theDipavamsa) are also important sources of Buddhist mythology. These stories serve asmorality tales and as models forBuddhist kingship which were emulated and used by later Buddhist monarchies throughout the Buddhist world. These royal myths touch on more secular issues such as the relationship between the monastic community and the state as well as the king's role in the world (and by extension the role of laypersons).[40]
Buddhist myths also tell stories about important disciples of the Buddha and later Buddhist saints (known asarahants). Especially important are hisTen Principal Disciples such asŚāripūtra andMaudgalyāyana as well as female disciples of the Buddha, such asMahapajapati Gotami (the first nun) and his wifeYaśodharā. Another important figure isAṅgulimāla, who was a mass murderer before becoming a monk under the Buddha. His tale serves as a story of redemption.
Later Buddhist saints such asMahinda andSanghamitta, both children ofAshoka are also part of Buddhist myths. Another example are stories related to the cult of the monkUpagupta who, according to legend, lived in the time of Ashoka. He does not appear in central Pali texts, but is a well known figure in the northern regions of Theravāda, including northern Myanmar, Thailand, and Laos. In these regions a variety of tales with related themes and motifs occur, and form the basis of ritual activity, usually carried out by the lay people. Such activities occur in a liminal space on the edge of the officially sanctioned Theravādin praxis.
Buddhist myths also feature heavenly beings, calleddevas. Buddhist myth adopted several Indian figures such asBrahma,Indra (also known asSakka) andPrithvi.
Theschools of Buddhism told stories of the origin of their own particular school. These narratives function like creation myths, explaining how the school came to be, and why it has a special authority to convey the Buddha's teaching. Unlike the pan-sectarian myths of the Buddha's life or the Jātakas, these exist specifically to promote one's own school in relation to contemporary rivals. Such sectarian myths also typically include an account of how the Dharma triumphed over primitive and violent religious cults, especially human or animal sacrifice in worship ofyakkhas.
TheTheravāda origin story is found in multiple places, such as theDīpavaṁsa, where the Buddha himself is said to have predicted the spread of Theravāda toSri Lanka. Moreover, in both theDīpavaṁsa (Island Chronicle) and theMahāvaṃsa (Great Chronicle), the Buddha is said to have actually visited the island three times.[41] TheSarvāstivādins located their origins in the time ofAshoka, claiming to be the true Dharma that spread to Kashmir when Buddhism in the Middle Country had become corrupt.
Other stories developed to give authority to certain texts. TheMahāyānists needed to address the fact that their texts were unknown in the initial period of Buddhism, and developed stories such as that they had been hidden in the realm of thenagas (snake-like supernatural beings) until people wise enough to understand them were born. Some versions of the myth state that the Indian philosopherNagarjuna magically flew to the city of the nagas and retrieved the hidden sutras.[42] Other myths deal with Buddhas in other worlds which can be reached through dreams or meditative visions such asMaitreya orAmitabha and who reveal new texts and teachings such as thefive treatises of Maitreya. Later Mahayana Buddhists also wrote their own biographies of the Buddha which included Mahayana elements, such as the biography in the TibetanBu-ston's (1290–1364)Chos ’byung (“History of Buddhism”).
Similarly, the promoters of theTheravādinAbhidhamma claimed that Abhidhamma had been taught by the Buddha to his mother inTusita heaven.[43] Other myths follow inanimate objects such as Buddhist relics. For example, the Pali text called theBodhivamsa describes the bringing of a cutting from theBodhi tree to Sri Lanka, while theThūpavaṃsa tells the story of theMahathupa ('GreatStupa') atAnuradhapura.
Likewise, with the development ofTantric Buddhism and their new texts calledTantras, they also developed legends which sought to legitimate these texts asBuddhavacana (word of the Buddha) despite the fact that historically they could not have been taught during the time of Gautama Buddha.[44] One of the most prominent of these are the various legends surrounding a figure known as kingIndrabhuti.[45] In one version of the myth translated by Ronald M. Davidson, it states that during the Buddha's time, nobody was ready for tantra on earth, so it was taught in Tusita heaven. Afterwards,Vajrapani brought the tantric teachings to the country of Zahor to King Indrabhuti, who was instructed in their meaning by a teacher calledKukuraja.[46]
Such mythologies developed, not just as “official” sectarian doctrines, but as local tales. For example, in most Buddhist countries there is a story of how the historical Buddha visited their country and foretold that the Dharma would be established there.
In addition to theMahāyāna origin story, Mahāyanist texts include a wide variety of narratives and mythologies, with numerous divine figures and stories that do not appear in the earlier texts. These vary from dramatic or humorous tales, to abstract philosophical parables.Mahayana sutras such as theLotus sutra and theAvatamsaka Sutra contain popular stories and parables which have been widely influential in Mahayana Buddhism.
A central figure inMahāyāna myths is theBodhisattva, a spiritually advanced being who is on the path toBuddhahood. Some of these beings, such asTara,Avalokiteshvara,Manjushri andVajrapani, while not yet Buddhas, have developed extraordinary godlike powers by reaching the highestbodhisattva level. According to Paul Williams,Avalokiteshvara "is perhaps the most popular of all Mahayana Bodhisattvas" and is seen as the compassionate savior of all beings, working constantly using infinite forms and means to help others.[47] Important sources for this figure are theLotus sutra and theKarandavyuha sutra.[48]
Other bodhisattvas are depicted as being still in the process of developing their skill in means(upaya) such asSudhana of theGaṇḍavyūha Sutra, and thus their stories serve as spiritualbildungsroman.
Buddhahood is also central to Mahayana mythology. A Buddha in Mahayana texts is also much more exalted and extraordinary than in earlier texts. A godlike being, a Buddha in the Mahayanaimaginary has lived and will continue to live for countless eons preaching his doctrine in innumerable ways and means to innumerable numbers of beings.[49] Regarding the Buddha Gautama, his limited "human" life on earth was merely an illusion, adocetic mirage which merely appears to perform human actions such as eating and so on.[50] Another important feature ofMahāyāna Buddhist myths is that they includeBuddhas other than Gautama Buddha, such asAmitābha,Bhaisajyaguru,Vairocana andAkshobhya, each with their own texts. These Buddhas are said to live in other realms, calledBuddhafields (buddhakṣetra, also known as Pure Lands) and to still be reachable in meditation, visions or through their intermediaries. These other worlds are said to extend infinitely in all directions, each containing a Buddha which teaches in their Buddhafield.[51] A Buddha such asAmitābha for example (one of the most popular Buddhas in East Asia), was associated with his vow that anyone who recited his name would be reborn in his pure land as well as with the bodhisattvaAvalokiteshvara.[52] These other Buddhas were also seen as the source of some of theMahayana sutras like thePure land sutras and theAksobhyavyuha sutras.[53]
Thehagiographies of IndianMahayana figures such asAsanga andNagarjuna, and the stories associated with them are also important in the mythology of Mahayana Buddhism. Biographies of the Indian philosopher Nagarjuna for example, depict him as a greatbrahmin sorcerer with powerful magics who made himself and his friends invisible once to enter a palace and violate the women. After his escape, his friends were all killed and this led him to the spiritual life and to the study of all the Buddha Dharma. This eventually led him to the discovery of theprajñaparamita sutras with the aid of theNaga king[54]
These stories and figures also further evolved inEast Asian Buddhism, for example, in time the male figure of Avalokiteshvara transformed into the female motherly figure ofGuanyin which has her own East Asian mythic corpus.[52] East Asian Buddhism (all of which isMahāyāna) also developed further regional and school specific mythologies as Buddhism continued to evolve and adapt. Stories and legends about founding figures and patriarchs of East Asian Buddhist schools are one such development. One example are the numerous stories which developed around theZen patriarchBodhidharma which serve to explain how Zen Buddhism is supposed to have arrived in China.[note 1] Another widely recognized figure which developed in China is the fat and jolly figure namedBudai, which developed in Zen texts such as theTransmission of the Lamp.[56]
Another very popular example of East Asian Buddhist myth is contained in one of China's classical novels,Journey to the West, which developed around stories of the Chinese monkXuanzang and his travels to India. These stories merge Buddhist myth with ideas fromChinese folk religion,Chinese mythology, as well asConfucian andTaoist beliefs.
The primary source for Buddhist myth is the vastBuddhist literature. The corpus is extensive; over 500Jātakas exist in Pali alone and there are various complete Buddhist canons in different languages.
The Jātakas remain closely linked to theoral tradition of theearly Buddhist texts. The core of the story is a set of verses, which in thePali tradition are the only part considered canonical. The story, and the framing narrative that tells the events of the Buddha's day, are commentary. However, as shown byThomas Rhys Davids, verse and prose must have been passed down together in many cases. This is typical of Pali oral literature, where a fixed canonically portion was accompanied by a much larger and more fluid commentary, which itself would gradually become canon. When taught, the verses would typically be recited verbatim, while the story would be elaborated and adapted by each storyteller.
By way of contrast, a developed literary work such as theSanskrit epic poems of the great Indian poetAśvaghoṣa such as theBuddhacarita and the Saundarananda were written down and carefully planned examples of the IndianMahākāvya genre. Drawing on the already elaborate literary heritage of Indian Buddhism,Aśvaghoṣa employed a huge vocabulary and complex poetic methods to create sophisticated texts for the enjoyment of an educated class.Aśvaghoṣa's compositions, written in polished Sanskrit, are carefully structured and arranged.[57] In these texts, there are also numerous allusions toBrahmanical legends and epic narratives.[57]
There are indications that Indian Buddhists developed edifying dramas, perhaps with musical accompaniment.Aśvaghoṣa is known to have written a Buddhist drama, theSariputra-Prakarana, which only survives in fragments.[58] It is the oldest dramatic work of Sanskrit literature yet discovered.[59] Such performances became popular in Buddhist cultures.
In pre-modern Asia, the oral and dramatic performance of Jātaka stories was another way in which Buddhist myth was propagated. This tradition remains active in Southeast Asian countries today, where Jātakas tales are performed in theater, dance and recitations during certain special occasions like duringBuddhist holidays.[60]
InTibet and other regions whereTibetan Buddhism has spread, various performances of sacred myth are also popular, such as theCham Dance a costume dance which illustrates Buddhist moral values.[61]
There is no art, or any other physical remains, from theearliest period of Buddhism. The first Buddhist art appears in theAshokan period. ButAshoka's pillars, while artistically superb, do not tell myths.
Perhaps 100 years after Ashoka, we have our first known Buddhiststupa complexes, which contain substantial and elaborate art. As well as drawing on motifs from the early texts, these frequently depict episodes from Jātakas and from the evolved form of the Buddha's life. The art that has survived is sculpture in stone, although this must be the remnants of a much richer heritage in more perishable materials.
In addition to purely decorative motifs, we frequently find art arranged in a sequence, or a roundel, depicting various events selected from a particular story. These would presumably have been used as a story-telling framework, a precursor to our modern graphic novels. A teacher, presumably a monk or nun, would tell the story illustrated by the pictures, or else people who knew the story would remind themselves of it. This method was developed fully in Borobudur, where the stories wind around the huge structure. In many modern Buddhist temples, especially those that are popular tourist sites, murals play the same role.
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The key event in the life of the Buddha is his leaving home. This event dramatizes the conflict between the “worldly” values of sex, family, career, and prosperity and the “spiritual” values ofrenunciation and dispassion (virāga).[62] This tension is a defining characteristic of Buddhist myth. Numerous Buddhist stories each tell the event in different ways, sometimes evoking the bodhisattva's pain in leaving his wife and child, as well as his father's efforts to entice him to stay and the sadness experienced by his wifeYashodhara and his charioteer Channa.
The renunciation is also dealt with repeatedly in theJātakas, with further variations. In some cases, the bodhisattva leaves home with his wife, or with both wife and children, or even with the whole city. In one case, the wife leaves the bodhisattva to raise the children.
Following on from renunciation is the event of the Buddha's awakening(bodhi) or liberation (vimutti,nirvana). In Buddhism this refers to an insight into the truth that leads to the end of suffering. In the doctrinal texts this is presented in psychological and existential terms, which the myths translate into narrative and imagery.
Thus the armies of the demon of Death,Māra, the forces of darkness and desire, are no longer simply psychological impulses, but literal armies of demonic forces, depicted in lavish detail. And they are not overcome simply by insight, but by evoking the Earth Goddess (dhārinī). She, as an elder deity, has borne witness to the bodhisattva's heroic deeds in the countless past lives as depicted in the Jātakas, and testifies to this fact, dispelling the forces of darkness.
Each detail of the awakening experience become imbued with mythic significance. The place where the Buddha sat, described in the early texts simply as a pleasant place suitable for meditation, becomes the “navel of the world”. It is the only place on earth strong enough to bear the weight of the awakening, and is used by all Buddhas, past, present, and future.
The event of his death and final release (paranirvana) from the realm of rebirth (samsara) are also important themes which are taken up in numerous Buddhist myths. For Buddhists, it was important to explain the death of the Buddha as a monumental event. Some Buddhists such as theLokuttaravada developed adocetic myth, which said that the Buddha did not really die, only appearing to do so, since his nature was supramundane.
Buddhist cosmology has an expansive view of time and space, withmultiple world systems (lokāḥ) divided into different planes of existence (dhātus) which go back countless eons (kalpas). The Buddhist (and Indic) view of time is cyclical instead of linear or progressive. World systems or universes go through cycles, from birth to destruction, and see similar patterns arise again and again. These patterns include the birth and awakening of a Buddha as well as the degeneration and eventual loss of the Dharma.Mythic return is thus a crucial theme in Buddhist cosmology. An important feature of this is that in the Buddhist universe, there is no single beginning or myth of a firstcreation. The Buddha is said to have stated that the world is "without discoverable beginning, a first point is not discerned of beings roaming and wandering on."[63] Thus while individual world systems (lokāḥ) go through cycles of birth and destruction (which are explained as being caused by natural processes related to thefour elements),[64] the entire system ofsamsara itself or the "multiverse" consisting of all universes has no single point of origination in time or asingle cause/prime mover. Thus Buddhist cosmology and myth rejectstheisticcreationism.[65]
Mahayana Buddhism added the concept of an infinity ofBuddhafields created by innumerable Buddhas, all of which are interconnected with one another.[66] The medieval texts known as theBuddhist tantras introduced more elaborate elements into the Buddhist cosmological system, includingastrological elements and new myths such as that of the kingdom ofShambala from theKalacakra tantra.
Despite this expansive view on time, the historical framework of Buddhist myth is in fact quite narrow. With few exceptions, the Jātakas, and even the stories of the future, imagine a world that is much like the India of the 5th century BCE, or more precisely, in the case of the Jātakas, a little earlier. Thus the many hundreds of births of the bodhisattva are set within a historical window of only a few centuries and are strongly rooted in thegeography of India. This includes the vast presence of theHimalayas, the powerful rivers, fertile fields, and wild forests. The wilds, including the mountains, are regularly depicted as resorts of sages and seekers. The cities are where wealth and fame are found, and wisdom lives in the wilderness. The early texts are strongly focused on the “middle country”—the central part of theGanges valley—where the Buddha spent his whole life. Reference to areas outside this are few. In the later texts, such as Jātakas, there is a much expanded geography, with a strong emphasis on trade across deserts and oceans. The Baveru Jātaka (“Babylon Jātaka”) tells of how to take advantage of the gullible Babylonians in trade. Buddhist mythic geography also includes extraordinary mythic elements, such as the central world mountain namedMount Meru and stories of the continent ofJambudvipa which refers to the world of humans. Later regional texts also focus on the geography of their origin, such as China, Tibet or Sri Lanka, as well as maintaining a mythic geography of India.
One tale told by the Buddha in the Aggan̄n̄a Sutta describes the process of recreation on this grand scale. An old world-system has just been destroyed, and its inhabitants are reborn in a new system. To begin with they are luminious being, floating happily above the earth, luminescent and without form, name or sex.
At that period, The world in these early stages is without light or land, only mass waters. Neither moon nor sun appeared, no constellations or stars appeared, night and day were not yet distinguished, nor months and fortnights, nor years and seasons. And sooner or later, after a very long period of time, Earth appears and the luminious being or spirits come to taste and enjoy it. It looked just like the skin that forms itself over hot milk as it cools. It was endowed with color, smell, and taste. It was the color of fine ghee or butter and it was very sweet, like pure wild honey. Their greed causes their ethereal bodies to become solid and coarse and differentiate into male and female, good-looking and ugly. As they lose their luminescence the sun and moon come into being.
Gradually the beings fall into further wicked habits, causing themselves - and the earth itself - to become less pleasant.
Buddhist myths use the standard story types and heroic journeys, always with a strong psychological emphasis. While the behaviour of the bodhisattva in the Jātakas is not always beyond reproach, there is a strong emphasis on overcoming hate and greed, and using intelligence and kindness to solve problems. The bodhisattva is more commonly represented as clever and resourceful than as a fierce warrior or powerful king.
The stories of the Jātakas as well as the post-Ashokan biographies also take importantBuddhist virtues as their themes, such as thevirtues known as the perfections (paramitas). The influential PaliMahanipata Jataka for example is made up of ten stories each illustrating one of theten paramitas.
TheBuddhist tantras meanwhile associated their numerous deities and cosmological elements with inner psychological states as well as physiological forces.
One of the earliest mythic motifs in the Buddha's life is the notion that he is a “Great Man” (mahāpurisa), who must choose his destiny. If he remains in the home, he will become a righteous universal emperor or "wheel turning monarch" (Pali: Cakkavatti;Sanskrit: Cakravartin), while if he chooses the way of renunciation he will become a Buddha. Of course, the historical bodhisattva chooses renunciation, but stories are told of those in the past who chose kingship. These are depicted to show an ideal of Buddhist leadership, one who rules without violence (ahimsa) while exemplifying and promoting Buddhist values.[67] Buddhist kings are also seen as protectors and supporters of theBuddhist community. The deeds of a great Buddhist king include the protection of animals and the building of public works such as parks, wells, and roads.[68]
The stories Mauryan emperorAshoka also added to the mythological elements of the myth of "Dharma King" (dhammaraja) and his great deeds. In much of Buddhist myth, Ashoka is the royal "exemplar par excellence" who exemplifies the ten royal virtues: generosity, moral virtue, self-sacrifice, kindness, self-control, non-anger, nonviolence, patience, and adherence to the norm of righteousness.[69] This figure was much emulated by later Buddhist kings, who builtstupas and temples and patronized the monastic community in imitation of Ashoka. This mimesis of the Ashoka myth by Asian Buddhist rulers is one way in which Buddhist myth influenced the Asian political ideology of states such asAngkor,Sukhothai andPagan.[70]
The Jātakas depict many examples of kings and of the bodhisattva Gautama himself who was a king in many past lives, the most famous throughout Southeast Asia being theVessantara Jataka. TheVessantara Jataka is basically a royal epic, whose hero is not a conqueror or warrior, but a hero of the Buddhist virtue of generosity (dāna) who takes a vow never to refuse to give away anything which might be asked of him.[71] InThailand this Jataka is told or performed at large ceremonies such as the “Bun Phawet” inRoi Et, where Upagupta is honoured as well as the Buddha.[72]
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Kingship in the Jātakas displays many of the classic features familiar inJames Frazer’s analysis ofsacred kingship. The king has not just worldly power, but had a connection to the gods. His behaviour affects the weather: a righteous king ensures good crops. The king is sometimes sacrificed, or stories of escaping and reforming sacrifice are told. Mahayana Buddhist accounts also add notions of thebodhisattva ideal to myths ofBuddhist kingship.
TheAggañña Sutta depicts an alternative, and arguable earlier, ideal of a Buddhist king. There, in a manner not dissimilar to the practices prevailing among the Buddha's ownSakyan people, the king is not destined but elected by the people. This model ofelective monarchy, however, was largely ignored, and subsequent Buddhist myths almost always featured hereditary kings.
Buddhist myths continue to have an impact on the political world of Asian Buddhist nations.King Bhumipol of Thailand is famous for telling Jātaka stories, which often contain some comment or twist that illustrate current events. In his translation of the Mahājanaka Jātaka, for example, the ending was changed so that the bodhisattva no longer renounced the throne, but remained and educated his people in preserving the environment.[73] InSri Lanka, theMahāvaṁsa, which tells the history of Buddhism on the island, was used to provide a mythic authority for the civil war against theTamil Tigers. This text tells the tale of the reveredKing Duṭṭhagaminī who expelled theTamil invaders and felt remorse for killing, a violation of the most fundamental Buddhist precept. He was reassured by monk, however, that only killing those who had taken refuge in Buddhism could be considered a moral fault.
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John Powers has noted how the story of the Buddha in Indian texts presents themes of male physical perfection, beauty and virtue. The Buddha is often depicted in Indian art and literature as a virile "Ultimate Man" (purusottama) and "is referred to by a range of epithets that extol his manly qualities, his extraordinarily beautiful body, his superhuman virility and physical strength, his skill in martial arts, and the effect he has on women who see him."[74] He is given numerous epithets such as “god among men,” “possessing manly strength,” “victor in battle,” “unsurpassed tamer of men,” “bull of a man” and “fearless lion.”[75] He is seen as having lived hundreds of past lives ascakravartins and as manly gods such asIndra and in his final life as Gautama, he excelled as a lover to many women in his palace harem as well as a warrior in the martial arts of aksatriya.[76] Texts such as theLalitavistara (extensive sport) dwell on the martial contests that the young bodhisattva had to complete in order to gain his wife, concluding in an archery contest in which he "picks up a bow that no one else could draw and that few could even lift. He grasps it while sitting down, lifts it easily, and shoots an arrow through every target, which utterly eclipses the performances of all the others."[77] The depictions of his ascetic training as well as his victory over the temptations of Mara and his final awakening are also often described as a result of his manly effort in a heroic battle.[78] The ascetic life is also connected to virility. In ancient India, the celibacy and the retaining of semen was said to bring about strength, health and physical energy. The practice of celibacy and austerity was said to accumulate a spiritual energy calledtapas.[79] Thus even as a celibate ascetic, the Buddha can fulfill the mythical archetype of the supreme man and heroic warrior.
All these good qualities are associated with the idea that the Buddha has excellent karma and virtue and thus in Indian Buddhism, moral transformation was seen as being related to physical transformation.[80] While usually overlooked in most scholarly literature, an important element of the Buddha mythology is the excellent physical characteristics of his body, which is adorned with what is termed the thirty two “physical characteristics of a great man” (mahapurusa-laksana), which are found only in Buddhas and in universal monarchs and are seen as proving their status as superior men.[81] In parallel with the perfect physical qualities of the Buddha, some Buddhist female figures such as the Buddha's mother Maya are said to also have thirty two good qualities, thus male perfection and female perfection mirror each other.[82]
The Buddha's perfection is also associated with supranormal feats (abhiñña) such aslevitation, walking on water andtelepathy. His powers are superior to that of the gods, and Indian deities like Brahma are depicted as being his disciples and accepting his superiority.[83]
Feminine figures and issues of gender are also an important feature of Buddhist mythology. Traditionally, women are seen as capable of achieving the highest levels of spiritual attainment.[84] Female figures in Buddhist myth include mother figures like the Buddha's mother QueenMaya (and hervirgin birth myth) and the goddessHārītī, monastics (bhikkhunīs) likeSanghamitta andMahapajapati Gotami and extraordinary divine figures likeTara,Guanyin,Vajrayogini andYeshe Tsongyal.
Buddhist myths and stories show an ambiguity in relation to gender. On the one hand, gender is seen as not a binary phenomenon. For example, there is fluidity in gender across lives. Frequently women are strong and capable. Gender roles are sometimes reversed, as when the bodhisattva's wife leaves him to raise the children as she becomes a nun. In some texts, gender is presented as a performance, and both men and women can engage in that performance with awareness. Transformation and escape from the traps of gender roles is made possible through a spiritual life, especially as a renunciant, and women are seen as capable of awakening just like men. Suzanne Mrozik, citing Elizabeth Grosz holds that in Indian Buddhism, bodies are "pliable" and "subject to transformation, because bodies are largely the products of our own actions.... Karma dictates the kind of body we get in any given lifetime—whether male or female, healthy or sick, beautiful or ugly, and so forth."[85] There are also various Buddhist stories which depict a person changing genders, such as a story which depicts the Buddhist saintAsanga being changed into a woman and his use of yogic powers to transform back into a man. Another story from theVimalakirti sutra has a goddess transformSariputra into a woman to prove that gender is merely anempty conceptual construction with no real basis.[86]
At the same time, there are many Buddhist stories that depict women in negative terms which continue to influence modern Buddhist views. Indian Buddhist views of women's sexuality are typical of ancient India, which saw women as inherently lustful creatures of passion, and who are often depicted as seductresses who are a danger to men seeking to live the celibate religious life.[87] These negative attitudes towards women continue to influence contemporary Buddhist cultures, where it is widely believed that birth as a woman is due to bad karma. This is also said to influence the future of Buddhism. One story which illustrates this is that of the first nun,Mahapajapati Gotami, which includes a prediction that because the Buddha allowed the ordination of women as nuns, the Buddhist Dharma will decline faster.[88]
In hisWhite Bones Red Rot Black Snakes,Bhikkhu Sujato pointed out that the Jātakas were compiled by many people over a long time. Rather than representing a single, coherent Buddhist position regarding women, he argued that they represent multiple conflicting attitudes, an ambiguity which cannot be easily represented in the doctrinal or philosophical texts. One of the major cause of negative views of women is the confusion and tension around sexuality experienced by those who have chosen a renunciant life. While the early texts advise to deal with this through mindfulness and meditation, in the stories the tensions become externalized as negative characteristics of women. Such views should not be seen as fixed, however, since Buddhism is not essentialist. Negative characteristics of women—like negative characteristics of men, which are also depicted—are qualities to be overcome and transformed through spiritual development. Thus Buddhism has always insisted that women are equal to men in their capacity for awakening.
Animals feature prominently in Buddhist myths, whether domesticated beasts like the cow or the cat, or wild beasts such as the lion or crocodile. The Jātakas frequently feature talking animals and common fable tropes such as thedonkey that clothes himself in a lion's skin.[89] A distinctive feature of Buddhist tales, however, is that theethical implications of such talking beasts are not dismissed. Instead, it is in dialogue with talking beasts that ethics ofnon-violence and restraint in killing animals are developed. In some Jātakas it is also common that an animal acts in a more moral manner than a human.[90]
Several kinds of animals appear regularly enough that they assume the role of stock characters. The lion is strong and fearless, the jackal, his nemesis, is weak, craven, and duplicitous. Animals can also symbolically represent other Buddhist themes, the lion for example is said to represent the Buddha (who is also known as the "lion of theSakya clan",Sakyasimha), since the lion is the king of the animals, with the loudest roar and the Buddha is the foremost of all humans with the most superior teaching. The deer represents renunciation, since it never sleeps in the same place.[91] Mythical animals such as theGaruda and Nagas also play a part in Buddhist animal fables and myths.
The Buddhist tradition shares with the wider Indian culture a range of extraordinary beings and places. Myth often deals with thesupernatural. However, while Buddhist myth frequently deals with events normally regarded as supernatural, such as stories ofdevas, miracles, and so on, these are all seen as aspects ofdharma, and thus as part of nature. In Buddhist context, then, it is best to describe these phenomena as “extraordinary”, in the sense of lying outside ordinary experience, rather than “supernatural”, being “above nature”.
Buddhist deities are an important element in all Buddhist mythologies. These deities include high levelbodhisattvas who have extraordinary powers, cosmicBuddhas (inMahayana),devas (heavenly beings who live for a very long time), nature spirits likeYakshas andfierce tantric deities or protectors.
Buddhist mythology also adoptBrahmanical myths and deities, frequently inverting motifs to illustrate a point of difference between Buddhism and orthodox Brahmanism. When the Indian creator deityBrahmā appears, he is sometimes depicted as a magnificent devotee of the Buddha, but sometimes he is mocked. Some Buddhist texts make fun of Brahma's belief that he is the creator of the universe.[92] Likewise, the ferocious war god of the Vedas,Indra, is transformed into the gentleSakka (usually given theepithetdevanam indrah "king of the gods"), who is said to have reached his godly status through public works.[93]
Buddhist saints and historical figures are also important in Buddhist myth. The stories of quasi-legendary figures such asPadmasambhava andMilarepa serve as important foundational myths forTibetan Buddhist schools.
InBuddhist literature as well as inBuddhist art, myth is also communicated using variousBuddhist symbols which have become widespread across the Buddhist world. Among the earliest and most common symbols are thestupa (symbolizing the Buddha), theDharma wheel (a symbol of the Dharma), theBodhi Tree (and its leaves) and thelotus flower (both symbolizingawakening).
Buddhist cultures typically preserve relics or places that tie them with the Buddhism of the past, and especially with the historical Buddha. These things are given meaning by telling sacred stories about them.
InSri Lanka, the most popular sites for pilgrimage are theBodhi tree atAnuradhapura, and thetooth relic at Kandy. The Bodhi tree myth says that it was a sapling taken from the tree under which the Buddha sat, brought to Sri Lanka by King Ashoka's daughter, the enlightened bhikkhunīSaṅghamittā. Worship of the tooth relic is ultimately derived from the closing passages of theMahāparinibbāna Sutta, which tell of the distribution of the Buddha's physical remains after his cremation.
It is common for mythic events to be performed or re-experienced as ritual, and in fact some myths arise as explanations of ritual. We find this frequently in Buddhism, as the ordination procedure mimics the renunciation of the Buddha. Although the Vinaya texts describing ordination depict it as a simple, almost bureaucratic, procedure, some Buddhist cultures have rituals in which they dress the candidate up like a prince and parade him through the streets in a reenactment of the renunciation of the Buddha. These rituals can be quite elaborate, with some candidates riding a while horse, and other individuals playing different roles such as the tempter Mara.[94] In Myanmar, a parallel life passage ritual also exists for women, called ashinbyu ceremony.
Another Buddhist ritual which includes reenactments of the Buddha life myth is the ritual of the consecration of a Buddha image. Among other things, the statue's head is covered, symbolizing the Buddhas withdrawal from householder life and various symbolic offerings are placed before the statue. including a sweet milk rice mixture symbolizing the offering of Sujata.[95]
InTantric Buddhism, rituals such astantric initiations and the creation ofmandalas can be seen as recreations of Tantric Buddhist mythic reality in a sacred time.
There is no developed tradition ofmyth interpretation within Buddhist traditions. Writers acknowledged that the various lives of the Buddha were similar, differing in only inconsequential details. The more spectacular aspects of Buddhist myth were likely treated for their entertainment value.Vasubandhu, writing around the 4th century CE, took it for granted that his audience understood that the so-called “guardians of hell” were in fact just projections of the mind. It is, however, not uncommon to find strictly literal interpretations of myth.
The reform movements in Buddhism that emerged around the end of the 19th century are known asBuddhist modernism. They are characterized by a rational approach to Buddhist ethics, philosophy, and meditation, and tend to reject or downplay mythic elements. As a result, many contemporary forms of Buddhism influenced by Buddhist modernism rarely pay much attention to myth or tend to downplay their importance, seeing them as later "accretions" or "distortions".[96] Perhaps because of this, modern scholarly analyses of Buddhist mythology are rare.
Bhikkhu Sujato has written an extensive analysis of Buddhist myth, focusing on women. He shows the extensive correlations between Buddhist myths and broader world myth, drawing on such sources asJoseph Campbell andErich Neumann, a student ofCarl Jung.[97]
Joseph Campbell’sHero’s Journey analyzed the Buddha's life myth as part of the universalhero's journey which he also compares to the life ofJesus, both being forms of what he saw as "anarchetypal World Savior".[98] Campbell mapped the life of the Buddha into what he saw as the standard formula for heroic myths:separation—initiation—return.[98]Separation maps into the Buddha's renunciation,initiation into his quest for and attainment of awakening andreturn is his return to the world to preach the Dharma to all (and thus for Campbell, he is a "universal hero" who brings a message to the entire world).[99]
Roberto Calasso in hisKa discusses Buddhist myth in the context of Indian myth more generally. He argues that the Buddha came to “put an end to gesture”, as his journey was ultimately inwards and dispensed with outward forms of spirituality such as ritual.
As Calasso sees it, the ancient world of sacrifice, of prohibition and authority, is ruined by the coming of the Buddha. The Buddha wishes to “eliminate the residue,” the leftovers from which everything new is generated (the pursuit of nirvana is nothing less than a wish to extinguish the residue of a lived life–rebirth). His doctrine prefigures our own world: “What would one day be called ‘the modern’ was, at least as far as its sharpest and most hidden point is concerned, a legacy of the Buddha. Seeing things as so many aggregates and dismantling them. . . . An arid, ferocious scholasticism. . . . Total lack of respect for any prohibition, any authority.”[100]
David Adams Leeming in hisMythology: The Voyage of the Hero sees the Buddha's enlightenment as a culmination of the theme of thehero quest in which a hero seeks a goal such as immortality (note thatamrita is actually a term fornirvana), specifically a related theme called the "withdrawal theme". Leeming states that "the myth of the hero's meditative withdrawal is the myth of the preparation of theshaman - the great teacher savior - who, having faced the unknown in himself, can now convey and apply this experience to us."[101]
Hagiography is one of the most popular forms of contemporary myth in Buddhist cultures. These come in the form of biographies, sometimes autobiographies, of revered monks or other spiritual practitioners. These stories typically draw on basic elements of the hero's journey as exemplified in the Buddha's life: special signs in youth, renunciation, struggle, awakening, teaching, and establishing a legacy. However their form is that of the modern biography, with more or less inclusion of paranormal events.
Such hagiographies are one of the staple forms of literature in theThai forest tradition. In Thailand, the primary example is the biography ofAjahn Mun Bhuridatta, the founding father, by one of his students,Ajahn Maha Boowa. The hagiography of Ajahn Mun has become a major modern legend inThai Buddhism.[102] It established many of the standard features of such biographies: accounts of struggles with sexual temptation, meeting with tigers and ghosts in the forest, and exciting tales of psychic or meditative prowess. It is controversial, however, since it depicts events such as meeting with long-deadarahants, a phenomenon that is impossible according to orthodox Theravāda.
In the Chinese tradition, we find the biography ofHsu Yun (Empty Cloud), which similarly relates stories of spiritual and psychic prowess in the very long life of this Chinese Buddhist master.
Likewise, the Tibetan tradition contains many biographies of famous teachers such as theDalai Lama, including one recent comic book adaptation. A unique mythic feature of this tradition is the story of the identification of the master as areincarnation of a former master.
Numerous films have been made depicting the life of the Buddha.Bertolucci'sLittle Buddha included elements of the Buddha's story as part of a more contemporary tale. Recently the film Siddhattha was made in Sri Lanka, which focused on the emotional tensions around the decision of the bodhisattva to go forth.
The Saiyūki (西遊記, lit. "Journey to the West"), also known by its English title 'Monkey', was a Japanese TV series that told the story of the pilgrimage of Xuan Zang to the India to retrieve the Buddhist sutras. More recently,a popular series on the life of the Buddha has aired on Indian television.
The life of the Buddha has been adapted as amanga byOsamu Tezuka and this in turn has been adapted into animated film.
Since Buddhism and meditation became a part of popular culture in US in the 1970s, it has become common to see Buddhist themes expressed in contemporary mythmaking.
The film seriesStar Wars, which was deliberately constructed as a modern myth on the Campbell model, features many Buddhist motifs. These include the Jedis who a mix of monk and warrior elite who meditate, and are asked to “be mindful of their feelings”.
The 1999 filmThe Matrix features themes of illusion, reality, and freedom that are fundamental to Buddhism.
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