.svg) | |
 Bái Đính Temple inNinh Bình Province, Vietnam | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| Estimates vary, around4.6 million to15 million 4.8% to 15% of the total population | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Throughout Vietnam | |
| Religions | |
| Mahayana Buddhism,Theravada Buddhism | |
| Languages | |
| Vietnamese |
Buddhism in Vietnam (Vietnamese:Đạo Phật, 道佛 orPhật Giáo, 佛教), as practiced by theVietnamese people, is a form ofEast AsianMahayana Buddhism. It is the second religion inVietnam. According to the Vietnamese government's 2019 National Population and Housing Census, approximately 4.6 million individuals identified asBuddhists, representing about 4.8% of the total population at that time. Roman Catholics represent 6.1% of the total population and the vast majority (83.6%) stated that they had to no religion or practice folk religion. However, the U.S. Department of State's 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom cites Vietnam's "White Book" that the Buddhist population increased from nearly 10 million in 2008 to approximately 14 million in 2021, which accounts for 13.3% of the overall population of Vietnam.[1]
Buddhism may have first come toVietnam as early as the 3rd or 2nd century BCE from theIndian subcontinent or fromChina in the 1st or 2nd century CE.[2] Vietnamese Buddhism has had asyncretic relationship with certain elements ofTaoism,Chinese spirituality, andVietnamese folk religion.[3]Theravada Buddhism also exists, as well as indigenous forms of Vietnamese Buddhism such asBửu Sơn Kỳ Hương andHòa Hảo.[4]
Vietnamese Buddhism is generally inclusive and syncretic, drawing on the mainChinese Buddhist traditions, such asTiantai (Vietnamese: Thiên Thai) andHuayan (Hoa Nghiêm),Zen (Thiền), andPure Land (Tịnh Độ).[5][6][7]
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Buddhism has a long history in Vietnam. The religion's history in the country spans various periods, from its initial entry during the early centuries of the first millennium CE to the modern era. Vietnamese research teams have gathered previously unknown data from archaeological finds and ancient archival records to provide historical analysis and cultural interpretation.[8]
There are conflicting theories regarding whether Buddhism first reached Vietnam during the 3rd or 2nd century BCE via delegations from India, or during the 1st or 2nd century from China.[9] In either case, by the end of the 2nd century CE, Vietnam had developed into a major regional Mahayana Buddhist hub, centering onLuy Lâu in modernBắc Ninh Province, northeast of the present-day capital city ofHanoi. Luy Lâu was the capital of the Han region ofJiaozhi and was a popular destination visited by many Indian Buddhist missionary monks en route to China. The monks followed the maritime trade route from the Indian subcontinent to China used by Indian traders.[8] A number ofMahayana sutras and theāgamas were translated intoClassical Chinese there, including theSutra of Forty-two Chapters and theAnapanasmrti-sutra.Jiaozhi was the birthplace of Buddhist missionaryKang Senghui, who was ofSogdian origin.[10]
Early Buddhist missionaries included the Indian monks Mahajivaka and Kalacarya. Mahajivaka and Kalacarya arrived together inLuy Lâu, the headquarters of Governor Shishee (Si Nhiep), towards the end of the Han dynasty Emperor Lingdi's reign (168-189 AD). While Kalacarya stayed inGiao Châu (modern Jiaozhou), Mahajivaka continued to China. Kalacarya's name, possibly transliterated from Sanskrit meaning "black sage," suggests he might have been a Dravidian from Southern India. The presence of numerous Indian monks in Giao Chau accompanying Si Nhiep is noted in a letter from Vien Huy to Tuan Huc in 207 A.D.[8]
TheLi Huo Lun, a Buddhist primer, was written by Mouzi, a Chinese scholar who became a Buddhist in Giao Chau and later returned to China. Mouzi sought asylum in Giao Chau due to the turmoil in China after Emperor Lingdi's death. Despite being invited to a high-ranking post by Governor Shishee, Mouzi refused, preferring to study. After his mother's death, he dedicated himself to Buddhism and Taoism, using writings to defend Buddhism against those who saw it as a betrayal of the Classics.[8]
The 3rd to 5th Centuries saw further figures like Kararuci and Dao Thanh who spread "lotus-meditation". This era also saw the writing of theBach Hac Luan ("Discussion between Black and White") by the monk Hue Lam. Hue Lam rejected the Pure Land school, possibly seeking to reconcile Confucianism and Buddhism. The self-immolation of the monk Dam Hoang, and his visible ascent to the Pure Land, is interpreted as a monastic defense of Pure Land teaching and a refutation of Hue Lam. An exchange of letters between Chinese official Li Miao and two Vietnamese monks, Dao Cao and Phap Minh, reveals the impact of doctrinal controversy. Dao Cao was identified as a Vietnamese monk from Giao Chau. Hue Lam's criticisms in Bach Hac Luan, published in 435 under Song Emperor Wendi, coincided with official efforts to restrict pagoda construction and statue casting due to waste, adding context to the debates.[8]
The first Ch'an (Zen) sect in Vietnam was founded byVinitaruci and Phap Hien. Vinitaruci, an Indian monk tonsured in China, transmitted Chinese Ch'an to Vietnam around 580 A.D. He arrived at Phap Van Pagoda in March 580 and trained people there until his death in 591. His teachings emphasized the Prajña ('wisdom of emptiness') tradition and 'direct transmission' of bodhi ('enlightenment') from Master to disciple. He also translated prayers. Phap Hien succeeded Vinitaruci as the second Patriarch of this sect.[8] The second Ch'an sect in Vietnam was named after its founder, Wu Yantong. Wu Yantong was a Chinese monk ordained by Bai Zhang. He arrived in Vietnam in 820 A.D. and transmitted his 'Buddha-heart seal' to Cam Thanh before his death in 826 A.D.. The sect emphasized Bai Zhang's doctrine of 'no-thinking'. Thien Hoi was the third Patriarch. The transmission lineage is traced through Chinese masters like Hui Neng and Ma Daoyi to Bai Zhang.[8] Prominent monks from the Vinitaruci sect included Phap Thuan and Ma Ha (tenth generation), Thien Ong and Sung Pham (eleventh generation), and Van Hanh (twelfth generation).[8]
Over the next eighteen centuries, Vietnam and China shared many common features of cultural, philosophical and religious heritage as a result of geographical proximity and northern parts of Vietnam being annexed twice by China. Vietnamese Buddhism is thus related toChinese Buddhism in general, and to some extent reflects the formation of Chinese Buddhism after theSong dynasty.[7] Meanwhile, in 875 new Cham kingIndravarman II who was a devout Mahayana Buddhist, established Mahayana asChampa's state religion, and built the large monastery complex ofĐồng Dương. His dynasty continued to rule Champa until the late 10th century.[11]
During theĐinh dynasty (968–980), Mahayana Buddhism was recognized by the state as an official religion (~971), reflecting the high esteem of Buddhist faith held by the Vietnamese monarchs, included some influences from theVajrayana section.[12] TheEarly Lê dynasty (980–1009) also afforded the same recognition to the Buddhist sangha. The growth of Buddhism during this time is attributed to the recruitment of erudite monks to the court as the newly independent state needed an ideological basis on which to build a country. Subsequently, this role was ceded to Confucianism.[13]
Vietnamese Buddhism reached its zenith during theLý dynasty (1009–1225), beginning with the founderLý Thái Tổ, who was raised in aBuddhist temple.[14] All of the emperors during the Lý dynasty professed and sanctioned Buddhism as the state religion. This endured with theTrần dynasty (1225–1400), but Buddhism had to share the stage with the emerging growth ofConfucianism. During the Ly Buddhism saw significant development as Vietnamese society became more stable and the centralized state consolidated. The Buddhist belief in benevolence influenced royal policies. Buddhist activities and celebrations created unique cultural characteristics, with numerous festivals for the inauguration of pagodas and towers built by the state. Local pagodas were also built. This period saw the continued presence of the Vinitaruci and Wu Yantong sects. Some monks in the Wu Yantong sect are believed to have practiced Tantrism, including Khong Lo and Giac Hai, and possibly Bat Nha from the Thao Duong sect. The Pure Land sect and the cults of Avalokitesvara and Amitabha were also widespread and influenced Chan sects. Thien Uyen Tap Anh, compiled during the later Tran period, is a valuable document for studying Buddhism under the Ly dynasty.[8]
A major development under theTrần dynasty (1010-1225) was the establishment of theTrúc Lâm school ofZen. EmperorTrần Nhân Tông founded this sect after leaving his family in 1299, becoming its first ancestor. Monk Phap Loa and Monk Huyen Quang were the second and third ancestors, respectively. Existing historical documents on the origin of the Truc Lam sect are not fully clear. EmperorTrần Thái Tông (r. 1226–58) was a significant figure, writing several Buddhist articles and texts collected inKhoa Hu Luc(Instructions on Emptiness). His works included discussions on repentance (Luc Thoi Sam Hoi Khoa Nghi, Binh Dang Le Sam Van) and observing precepts (Thu Gioi Luan, Gioi Dinh Tue Luan). Thai Tong's views on meditation differed fromHuineng's concept of simultaneous enlightenment, favoring a graduated path.[8]
In the 15th century, the LaterLê dynasty (1428 to 1789), imitating Chinese emperors, privilegedNeo-Confucianism and integrated Buddhism further into the state system, leading to state controls on Buddhism. During the later dynastic era Buddhism was increasingly critiqued by Neo-Confucian officials, such asLê Quát, though it remained popular with the masses.[15] Buddhism also influenced the thought of certain intellectuals, such asNguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm (1491–1585), an influential poet and philosopher who drew from Daoism, Buddhism and Neoconfucianism. His thought saw thethree teachings as different ways of cultivating the Way.[16][17] Other elite scholars likeNguyễn Trãi,Lương Thế Vinh, and Emperor Le Thanh Ton (born 1607) also wrote Buddhist works. EmperorLê Thánh Tông is known for his descriptions of hon (forsaken spirits) trapped in 'aimless wandering' due to having suffered an injustice in their past life. His work,Thap Gioi Co Hon Quoc Ngu Van, on forsaken spirits, was inspired by the Buddhist workKhoa Mong Son Thi Thuc. While both works deal with the same topic and source, Le Thanh Ton excluded monarchs, lords, and warriors from the categories of forsaken spirits in his work. These works demonstrate that even while Buddhism lost political influence, it still significantly affected popular thought and appeared in scholarly and popular writings.[8]
The late period of Vietnamese dynastic history (16th century to the early 19th century) is marked by the fragmentation of centralized authority and constant conflict between the weakenedLê dynasty, and numerous other Vietnamese dynastic powers, including theMạc dynasty, theTrịnh lords, and theNguyễn lords. This era is characterized by nominal imperial legitimacy under the Lê emperors, while real power was exercised by regional warlords. During this time, Buddhism continued to be promoted by some regional lords and intellectuals and continued to be widely practiced at the local level.
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Tumultuous events in the latter half of the 18th century, such as peasant insurrections and the overthrow of regimes, created a mindset whereConfucianism was no longer adequate, necessitating a new synthesis of theThree Teachings (Buddhism, Confucianism,Taoism). Scholar Ngo Thi Nham attempted this synthesis, though his ideas remained underpinned by Confucianism. He wrote several works, including Truc Lam Tong Chi Nguyen Thanh, dealing specifically with Buddhism. The Buddhist monk Toan Nhat was considered more successful, producing the workThe Tale of Hua Su.[8] This work, divided into four parts, incorporates Buddhist ideas and introduces themes unprecedented in Vietnamese literature, including anti-royalism (positing the teacher as more important than the emperor or parents), the necessary relation of labor to truth and mercy, and the necessary relation of armed struggle to authentic compassion. It contains episodes reflecting the epoch's realities, like war and injustice, and integrates Buddhist morality into contemporary thought.[8]
It was not until the 19th century that Buddhism regained some stature under theNguyễn dynasty (1802–1945), which accorded royal support.[18] While theNguyễn dynasty (1802-early 20th century) was characterized by a resurgent Confucianism, Buddhism still thrived during this time, and its influence can be seen in the elite literature of the time.[8] Buddhist monks and nuns also worked hard to collect, compile and print the Vietnamese Buddhist canon, which included unique Vietnamese Buddhist works and histories. Some key figures involved in this work included Phuc Dien, An Thien, Thanh Dam, and Dieu Nghiem.[8]
During the period of the Nguyễn dynasty as a protectorate of France (1887–1954), Buddhism developed an engaged Buddhist tendency towards a pro-active commitment to seeking solutions for sociopolitical problems. Despite the traditional Buddhist focus on release from the mundane world, monks made heroic contributions toanti-colonial insurrections. Examples include Vuong Quoc Chinh and Van Tru leading the 1898 revolt and Nguyen Huu Tri leading the 1916 revolt. Vo Tru organized resistance between 1893-94, and Cao Van Long spearheaded the 1916 attack onSaigon. Vuong Quoc Chinh, a Confucian scholar and Buddhist devotee, led the 1898 attack on Hanoi, mobilizing patriotic forces under religious cover.[8]
A Buddhist revival movement (Chấn hưng Phật giáo) emerged in the 1920s in an effort to reform and strengthen institutional Buddhism, which had lost grounds to the spread of Christianity and the growth of other faiths during the French protectorate period. The movement continued into the 1950s and the republican era.[19]
This Buddhist revival movement used vernacular Vietnamese for communication, publishing ideas in newspapers and magazines rather than relying solely on traditional Chinese texts. Buddhist reformers debated doctrinal questions and the religion's relationship with society, the nation, and science. The movement originated in Saigon, influenced by its exposure to modern currents and publications, including Phap Am and Phat Hoa Tan Thanh Nien (the first Buddhist periodicals in modern Vietnamese). Figures like Thien Chieu agitated for reform, publishingPhat Hoc Tong Yeu (A General Summary of Buddhism) in 1929, which introduced novel ideas and took a critical stance against blind adherence to convention. This work sparked debates in various newspapers. The writings of monks like Thien Chieu were seen as an ideological prelude to the formation of large Buddhist organizations. Between 1930 and 1933, four Buddhist research associations were established in the South, including the Hoi Nam Ky Nghien Cuu Phat Hoc in Saigon, led by dignitaries such as Khanh Hoa, Hue Quang, and Tri Thien, and including figures like Tran Nguyen Chan. These associations published magazines (Tu Bi Am, Bat Nha Am), collected texts, and opened schools. Laymen such as Nguyen Nang Quoc, Thieu Chuu, and Tran Trong Kim also played important roles. Buddhist associations in Northern and Central Vietnam also formed, with rapidly growing memberships. Although a nationwide association was prevented by the French, regional groups developed cooperation. Some Confucian scholars also supported the Buddhist movement and the publication of Buddhist papers. In order to manage the movement, the French officials placed key figures like Tran Nguyen Chan and Nguyen Nang Quoc in leadership roles under French supervision.[8]
From 1954 to 1975, Vietnam was split intoNorth andSouth Vietnam. In a country where surveys of the religious composition estimated the Buddhist majority to be approximately 70 to 80 percent,[20][21][22][23][24][25][26] South Vietnamese PresidentNgô Đình Diệm's policies generated claims of religious bias. As a member of the Catholic Vietnamese minority, he pursued pro-Catholic policies that antagonized many Buddhists.
On 22 December 1953, theState of Vietnam recognized theVietnamese Pure Land Buddhist Laity Association.[27]
In May 1963, in the central city ofHuế, where Diệm's elder brotherNgô Đình Thục was the archbishop, Buddhists were prohibited from displaying Buddhist flags duringVesak celebrations.[28] Yet few days earlier, Catholics were allowed to fly religious flags at a celebration in honour of the newly seatedarchbishop. This led to widespread protest against the government; troops were sent in, and nine civilians were killed in the confrontations. This led to mass rallies against Diệm's government, termed as theBuddhist crisis. The conflicts culminated inThích Quảng Đức's self-immolation by lighting himself on fire in protest of the persecution of Buddhists. President Diệm's younger brotherNgô Đình Nhu favored strong-armed tactics, andArmy of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces engaged in theXá Lợi Pagoda raids, killing estimated hundreds.[citation needed] Dismayed by the public outrage, the U.S. government withdrew support for the regime. President Diệm wasdeposed and killed in the 1963 coup.[29][30]
Political strength of the Buddhists grew in the 1960s as different schools and orders convene to form theUnified Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam. Leaders of theSangha likeThích Trí Quang had considerable sway in national politics, at times challenging the government.
With thefall of Saigon in 1975, the whole nation came underCommunist rule; many religious practices including Buddhism were discouraged. In the North, the government had created theUnited Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam, co-opting the clergy to function under government auspices, but in the South, theUnified Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam still held sway and openly challenged the communist government. The Sangha leadership was thus arrested and imprisoned; Sangha properties were seized and the Sangha itself was outlawed. In its place was the newly createdBuddhist Sangha of Vietnam, designed as the final union of all Buddhist organizations, now under full state control.
The treatment of Buddhists started to ease since the reform era (Đổi mới) began in 1986. Since theĐổi Mới reforms, many reforms have allowed Buddhists to practice their religion relatively unhindered. However, no organized sangha is allowed to function independent of the state. It was not until 2007 thatPure Land Buddhism, the most widespread type of Buddhism practiced in Vietnam, was officially recognized as a religion by the government.[31]Thích Quảng Độ, the Patriarch of the Unified Buddhist Sangha, once imprisoned, remained under surveillance and restricted in his travels until his death.
Today, Buddhists are found throughout Vietnam, from North to South. Buddhism is the single largest organized religion in Vietnam, with somewhere between 45% and 55% of the population identifying themselves as Buddhist.[32][33] Some argued that the number is higher than reported, as many declared themselves as atheists but still participate in Buddhist activities.
Though theCommunist Party of Vietnam officially promotes atheism, it has usually leaned in favor of Buddhism, as Buddhism is associated with the long and deep history of Vietnam. Also, there have rarely been disputes between Buddhists and the Government;[34] the Communist Government also sees Buddhism as a symbol of Vietnamese patriotism. Buddhist festivals are officially promoted by the Government and restrictions are few,[35] in contrast to its Christian, Muslim and other religious counterparts.
Recently, the Communist regime in Vietnam allowed major Buddhist figures to enter the country.Thích Nhất Hạnh, an influential Buddhist figure revered both in Vietnam and worldwide, is among these.[36] Distancing itself from the fellow communist neighbor China, the Government of Vietnam allows the publishing of books and stories of14th Dalai Lama, who has a personal friendship with Thích Nhất Hạnh and were commonly critical of the Chinese regime after the2008 Tibetan unrest,[37] which was seen as an attempt to antagonize the Chinese Government and China as a whole, as Beijing still considers the Dalai Lama to be a terrorist.
TheVietnam Buddhist Sangha has placed much emphasis on promoting Buddhism to remote areas and ethnic minorities beyond the nativeKinh people group, in contrary to other Buddhist governing body in the region. These efforts has given rise to more ethnic minorities embracing Buddhism in remote areas, especially in theCentral Highlands region of Vietnam.
For example, Buddhists adherent in theKon Tum province, a traditionally non-Buddhist region has grown to host 30,000 Buddhists since arriving in the 1930s, with 4,000 of them being of ethnic minority. There are 27 Pagodas and 6 Viharas in the region with 90 active Buddhist monastics today.[38]
Separately,Dak Lak province of Vietnam has also seen a rise in Buddhist adherent with about 3,000 adherents coming from ethnic minority such as theE De people group.[39]
After the fall of South Vietnam to the Communist North in 1975 at the end of theVietnam War, the first major Buddhist community appeared in North America. Since this time, the North American Vietnamese Buddhist community has grown to some 160 temples and centers. Proselytizing is not a priority.
The most famous practitioner of synchronizedVietnamese Thiền in the West isThích Nhất Hạnh, who has authored dozens of books and founded thePlum Village Monastery in France together with his colleague,bhikṣuṇī and Zen MasterChân Không. According to Nguyen and Barber, Thích Nhất Hạnh's fame in the Western world as a proponent of engaged Buddhism and a new Thiền style has "no affinity with or any foundation in traditional Vietnamese Buddhist practices",[40] and according to Alexander Soucy (2007), his style of Zen Buddhism is not reflective of actual Vietnamese Buddhism. These claims are contradicted by Elise Anne DeVido, who examined the life and legacy of Thích Nhất Hạnh and how we can understand his teachings in terms of its Vietnamese origins.[41] Thích Nhất Hạnh also often recounts about his early Thiền practices in Vietnam in his Dharma talks, saying that he continued and developed this practice in the West, which has a distinctive Vietnamese Thiền flavor.[citation needed]
Thích Nhất Hạnh's Buddhist teachings have started to return to Vietnam, where the Buddhist landscape is now being shaped by the combined Vietnamese and Westernized Buddhism that is focused more on the meditative practices.[42]
At the beginning of the 20th century, in response to the Buddhist revival movements in other countries, Vietnamese monks also advocated for the revitalization of Buddhism in Vietnam, which grew significantly across all three regions. This led to the establishment of modern Vietnamese Buddhism, and Buddhism gradually regained its rightful position, though it still was not the state religion in Vietnam.
Buddhism in each period of Vietnamese history has had the support of prominent scholars and figures. TheChánh Pháp magazine (issue 165) mentions the intellectual elites who accompanied Vietnamese Buddhism, including: the Zhuangyuan Lý Đạo Tái, Zhuangyuan Lê Ích Mộc, Vice Grand-Chancellor of Đại ViệtVũ Trinh, lay Buddhist and doctor Lê Đình Thám, Venerable Thích Minh Châu, Lê Mạnh Thát, and visual artist - valedictorianVũ Tú[43]. These individuals were the intellectual cream of their era, choosing to propagate the Dharma through wisdom and exceptional character. They embody the union of spiritual and worldly life, demonstrating a practical engagement with the world while remaining spiritually pure and detached – a shining pride in the flow of both Vietnamese Buddhism and intellectual heritage[44].
Followers in Vietnam practice differing traditions without any problem or sense of contradiction.[45] Few Vietnamese Buddhists would identify themselves as a particular kind of Buddhism, as a Christian might identify themself by a denomination, for example. Although Vietnamese Buddhism does not have a strong centralized structure, the practice is similar throughout the country at almost any temple.
Gaining merit is the most common and essential practice in Vietnamese Buddhism with a belief that liberation takes place with the help of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Buddhist monks commonly chant sutras, recite Buddhas' names (particularlyAmitābha), doing repentance, and praying for rebirth in the Pure Land.[46]
TheLotus Sutra and theAmitabha Sutra are the most commonly used sutras.[46] Most sutras and texts are inVăn ngôn and are merely recited withSino-Xenic pronunciations, making them incomprehensible to most practitioners.
Three services are practiced regularly at dawn, noon, and dusk. They include sutra reading withniệm Phật anddhāraṇī, including theChú Đại Bi (theNīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī), recitation andkinh hành (walking meditation). Laypeople at times join the services at the temple, and some devout Buddhist practice the services at home. Special services such assám nguyện/sám hối (confession/repentance) takes place on thefull moon andnew moon each month. The niệm Phật practice is one way of repenting and purifying bad karma.[45]
Buddhist temples also serve a significant role in death rituals and funerals amongoverseas Vietnamese.
At the entrance of many pagodas, especially in tourist places, theGreat Compassion Dharani (Vietnamese version of the Chinese 大悲咒Dàbēi zhòu, theNīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī or Great Compassion Dharani or Mantra), is made available to visitors, either printed on a single sheet in black and white, or as a color booklet on glossy paper. They are printed on the initiative of Buddhist practitioners who make an offering to thesangha.
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The Chú Đại Bi (Vietnamese translation of the Chinese title 大悲咒Dàbēi zhòu), is divided into 84 verses and available in either unnumbered or numbered versions. The text recited in religious services is atranscription into modern Vietnamese (Chữ Quốc ngữ) from the ancient Vietnamese (Chữ Nôm andChữ Hán) text, which was itself a transcription from Chinese (not a traduction). The following translations into modern Vietnamese and English are based on the work of Vietnamese historian Lê Tự Hỷ[47] and Indian historianLokesh Chandra.[48] A reconstruction inSanskritIAST from the original text, by Lê Tự Hỷ, is also proposed.
| Chú Đại Bi 1 & 2. Transcription and traduction from ancient Vietnamese (Chữ Nôm andChữ Hán) to modern Vietnamese (Chữ Quốc ngữ) and translation in English. 3. Reconstructed text in Sanskrit IAST. |
*1. Text without the numbering of the verses[49]. The following text is thetranscription into modern Vietnamese (chữ Quốc ngữ) from Old Vietnamese (Chữ Nôm andChữ Hán) version, itself a transliteration from the Chinese 大悲咒Dàbēi zhòu :
The following is a reconstruction of the text in SanskritIAST by the vietnamese historian Lê Tự Hỷ[47] who proposes a division into five parts, close to that ofLokesh Chandra.[59][60] It is divided into 18 grammatically structured sentences[61] (one can notice that the terms "dhāraṇī" and "mantra" are used alternately).
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The overall doctrinal position of Vietnamese Buddhism isinclusive andsyncretic, adopting doctrines from Chinese Buddhist schools likeTiantai (Thiên Thai) andHuayan (Vietnamese:Hoa Nghiêm).[7] Likewise, modern Vietnamese Buddhist practice can be very eclectic, including elements fromThiền (Chan Buddhism),Thiên Thai, andTịnh độ(Pure Land).[7] Vietnamese Buddhist are often separated not by sects but by the style in how they perform and recite texts, which monks of different regions of Vietnam are known for. According to Charles Prebish, many English language sources contain misconceptions regarding the variety of doctrines and practices in traditional Vietnamese Buddhism:[62]
We will not consider here the misconceptions presented in most English-language materials regarding the distinctness of these schools, and the strong inclination for "syncretism" found in Chinese and Vietnamese Buddhism. Much has been said about the incompatibility of different schools and their difficulty in successfully communicating with each other and combining their doctrines. None of these theories reflects realities in Vietnam (or China) past or present. The followers have no problem practicing the various teachings at the same time.
The methods of Pure Land Buddhism are perhaps the most widespread within Vietnam. It is common for practitioners to recitesutras, chants anddhāraṇīs looking to gain the protection ofBuddhas andbodhisattvas.[63] It is adevotional practice where those practicing put theirfaith inAmitābha (Vietnamese:A-di-đà). Followers believe they will gain rebirth in hispure land by chanting Amitabha's name. A pure land is a Buddha-realm where one can more easily attain enlightenment since suffering does not exist there.
Many religious organizations have not been recognized by the government. However, in 2007, with 1.5 million followers, the Vietnamese Pure Land Buddhism Association (Tịnh Độ Cư Sĩ Phật Hội Việt Nam) received official recognition as an independent and legal religious organization.[31]
Thiền is theSino-Xenic pronunciation ofChan (Japanese:Zen) and is derived ultimately fromSanskrit "dhyāna". The traditional account is that in 580, an Indian monk namedVinitaruci (Vietnamese:Tì-ni-đa-lưu-chi) traveled to Vietnam after completing his studies withSengcan, the third patriarch of Chan Buddhism. This would be the first appearance of Thiền. The sect that Vinitaruci and his lone Vietnamese disciple founded would become known as the oldest branch of Thiền. After a period of obscurity, the Vinitaruci School became one of the most influential Buddhist groups in Vietnam by the 10th century, particularly under the patriarchVạn Hạnh (died 1018). Other early Vietnamese Zen schools included theVô Ngôn Thông, which was associated with the teaching ofMazu Daoyi, and the Thảo Đường, which incorporatednianfo chanting techniques; both were founded by Chinese monks.
A new Thiền school was founded by EmperorTrần Nhân Tông (1258–1308); called theTrúc Lâm "Bamboo Grove" school, it evinced a deep influence fromConfucian andTaoist philosophy. Nevertheless, Trúc Lâm's prestige waned over the following centuries as Confucianism became dominant in the royal court. In the 17th century, a group of Chinese monks led by Nguyên Thiều introduced theLinji school (Lâm Tế). A more native offshoot of Lâm Tế, the Liễu Quán school, was founded in the 18th century and has since been the predominant branch of Vietnamese Zen.
Some scholars argue that the importance and prevalence of Thiền in Vietnam has been greatly overstated and that it has played more of an elite rhetorical role than a role of practice.[64] TheThiền uyển tập anh (chữ Hán:禪苑集英, "Collection of Outstanding Figures of the Zen Garden") has been the dominant text used to legitimize Thiền lineages and history within Vietnam. However, Cuong Tu Nguyen'sZen in Medieval Vietnam: A Study and Translation of the Thien Tap Anh (1997) gives a critical review of how the text has been used to create a history of Zen Buddhism that is "fraught with discontinuity". Modern Buddhist practices are not reflective of a Thiền past; in Vietnam, common practices are more focused on ritual and devotion than the Thiền focus on meditation.[65] Nonetheless, Vietnam is seeing a steady growth in Zen today.[42] Two figures who have been responsible for this increased interest in Thiền areThích Nhất Hạnh, andThích Thanh Từ, who lives inDa Lat.
The central and southern part of present-day Vietnam were originally inhabited by theChams and theKhmer people, respectively, who followed both a syncreticŚaiva-Mahayana (seeHistory of Buddhism in Cambodia).Theravāda spread from Sri Lanka to Cambodia during the 15th and 16th centuries, became established as the state religion in Cambodia and also spread to Cambodians living in theMekong Delta, replaced Mahayana.[66]Đại Việt annexed the land occupied by the Cham during conquests in the 15th century and by the 18th century had also annexed the southern portion of theKhmer Empire, resulting in the current borders of Vietnam. From that time onward, the dominant Đại Việt (Vietnamese) followed the Mahayana tradition while the Khmer people continued to practice Theravada Buddhism.[67]
In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a number of movements in Vietnam for the revival and modernization of Buddhist activities. Together with the re-organization of Mahayana establishments, there developed a growing interest in Theravadinmeditation as well as thePāli Canon. These were then available in French. Among the pioneers who brought Theravada Buddhism to the ethnic Đại Việt was a young veterinary doctor named Lê Văn Giảng. He was born in the Southern region, received higher education in Hanoi, and after graduation, was sent to Phnom Penh, Cambodia, to work for the French government.[68]
During that time, he became especially interested in Theravada Buddhist practice. Subsequently, he decided to ordain and took the Dhamma name of Hộ-Tông (Vansarakkhita). In 1940, upon an invitation from a group of lay Buddhists led by Nguyễn Văn Hiểu, he went back to Vietnam in order to help establish the first Theravadin temple for Vietnamese Buddhists at Gò Dưa, Thủ Đức (now a district of Hồ Chí Minh City). The temple was named Bửu Quang (Ratana Ramsyarama). The temple was destroyed by French troops in 1947, and was later rebuilt in 1951. At Bửu Quang temple, together with a group of Vietnamesebhikkhus who had received training in Cambodia such as Thiện Luật, Bửu Chơn, Kim Quang and Giới Nghiêm, Hộ Tông began teaching Buddhism in their native Vietnamese. He also translated many Buddhist materials from thePali Canon, and Theravada Buddhism became part of Vietnamese Buddhist activity in the country.
In 1949–1950, Hộ Tông together with Nguyễn Văn Hiểu and supporters built a new temple in Saigon (now Hồ Chí Minh City), named Kỳ Viên Tự (Jetavana Vihara). This temple became the centre of Theravadin Buddhist activities in Vietnam, which continued to attract increasing interest among the Vietnamese Buddhists. In 1957, theVietnamese Theravada Buddhist Sangha Congregation (Giáo hội Tăng-già Nguyên thủy Việt Nam) was formally established and recognised by the government, and the Theravada Sangha elected Venerable Hộ Tông as its first President, orSangharaja.
From Saigon, the Theravadin Buddhist movement spread to other provinces, and soon, a number of Theravadin temples for ethnic Viet Buddhists were established in many areas in the Southern and Central parts of Vietnam. There are 529 Theravadin Buddhist temples throughout the country, of which 19 were located in Hồ Chí Minh City and its vicinity. Besides Bửu Quang and Kỳ Viên temples, other well known temples are Bửu Long, Giác Quang, Tam Bảo (Đà Nẵng), Thiền Lâm and Huyền Không (Huế), and the largeThích Ca Phật Đài inVũng Tàu.[69]
There is also a branch of Theravada Buddhism that also combines elements from the Mahayana tradition which is calledVietnam Mendicant Sangha or in Vietnamese,Đạo Phật Khất Sĩ Việt Nam, it was created by Thích Minh Đăng Quang, who wanted to create the original Buddhist tradition by walking barefoot and begging for alms.
At the moment, theBuddhist Sangha of Vietnam is the official Buddhist organization of the whole Vietnam.[70] It was established on 7/11/1981, sponsored and recognized by theGovernment of Vietnam.[71] The headquarter is inHanoi. The current Supreme Patriarch is The Most VenerableThích Trí Quảng.
Another un-recognized Buddhist organization is theUnified Buddhist Church of Vietnam which has existed in the formerSouth Vietnam duringVietnam War.[72] However many of its followers have joined the newly established Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam,[72] some followers resent the socialist government and oppose the new sangha.[73] Hence the Unified Buddhist Church still exists today in Vietnam (but very scattered and outlawed) and exile in overseas.
Other smaller independent Buddhist sects exist in Vietnam, such as:
All of those Buddhist sects are recognized by the current Government of Vietnam.
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References related to the Chú Đại Bi
Media related toBuddhism in Vietnam at Wikimedia Commons
