Bandar Seri Begawan[a] (BSB) is the capital and largest city ofBrunei. It is officially amunicipal area (kawasan bandaran) with an area of 100.36 square kilometres (38.75 sq mi) and has a population of 72,133 as of 2025 estimate.[3] It is part ofBrunei–Muara District, the smallest yet most populous district which is home to over 70 percent of the country's population.[4] It is the country's largest urban centre and nominally the country's only city. The capital is home to Brunei's seat of government, as well as a commercial and cultural centre. It was formerly known asBrunei Town until it was renamed in 1970 in honour ofOmar Ali Saifuddien III, the 28thSultan of Brunei and the father of SultanHassanal Bolkiah.
The history of Bandar Seri Begawan can be traced back to the establishment of aMalaystilt settlement on the waters of theBrunei River which became the predecessor ofKampong Ayer today. It became the capital of theBruneian Sultanate from the 16th century onwards, as well as in the 19th century when it became aBritish protectorate. The establishment of a British Residency in the 20th century saw the establishment of modern-day administration on land, as well as the gradual resettlement of the riverine dwellers to the land. DuringWorld War II, the capital wasoccupied by the Japanese forces from 1941 and bombed in 1945 upon liberation by Allied forces. Brunei's independence from the British was declared on 1 January 1984 on a square in thecity centre.
Bandar Seri Begawan was named after the title of the 28thSultan of BruneiOmar Ali Saifuddien III,[7]Seri Begawan (fromSanskrit:श्री भगवान्,romanized: ŚrīBhagavān, 'the shining andsaintly'[8]) bestowed upon his abdication in favor of his son,Hassanal Bolkiah, in 1967.[7][9] The city was renamed on 4 October 1970 to commemorate his contribution to the modernisation of the country during his reign in the 20th century.[10][11][12] Prior to this, the city had been known as Brunei Town orBandar Brunei inMalay.[13][14]
The growth and development of Brunei's historic capital city unfolded in three main stages. The first stage began in the 17th century with the emergence of a water settlement near present-dayKota Batu. In the second stage the capital shifted to the area around what is nowKampong Ayer—a collection of water villages.[15] Today, Kampong Ayer, originally the ancient capital built over theBrunei River, serves as a suburb of the modern capital on adjacent land,[16] having thrived particularly during SultanBolkiah's reign.[17] This city was developed on land during the third phase, particularly after 1906.[15]
Over 300 years of intermittent conflict between the Malay Muslim tribes and Spanish conquistadors, known in Spanish chronicles as theMoro Wars, began in 1578 when Catholic Spaniards attacked Kampong Ayer during theCastilian War.[17] Pirates, many of whom were Muslim sailors from the southern Philippines and Borneo, including destitute princes from the royal families ofSulu and Brunei, took advantage of the void left by Kampong Ayer's loss in authority throughout the 16th and 17th century. Along with other important sites likeEndau andJolo, the capital became a major hub for piracy and the trade in stolen goods and slaves as the sultan attempted to regulate or tax these pirate towns.[18]
An illustration of Kampong Ayer's stilt houses on the Brunei River in 1844
Kampong Ayer was still humble and less affluent by the middle of the 19th century, and its look had not altered much sinceAntonio Pigafetta's time. It was dubbed a "Venice of hovels" byRajah James Brooke in 1841. Houses were constructed onmudflats, encircled by mud at low tide and water at high tide, and a floating market was crowded with people peddling things from canoes. Despite its unattractive appearance, the town was renowned for its packed buildings and the spacious but uncomfortable palace, where Brooke was made to feel quite welcome by the sultan and his court despite the gloomy and basic lodgings.[19]
Known as the "Venice of Borneo," Kampong Ayer is distinguished by its position on a wide river that empties into a sizeable lake and by the fact that its homes are perched on piles that are around 10 feet (3.0 m) above the tide. The formerly thriving town has lost both size and significance, as seen by its dilapidated buildings and shortage of defences. Once enclosed by a sturdy brick wall and furnished with opulent furnishings, the sultan's palace looks like a cheap shed. The town's filthy state is exacerbated by offensive smells coming from uncovered mud, where waste builds up. In sharp contrast to the town's historical splendour, the majority of the population is made up of slaves and the Sultan's and nobility's dependents.[20]
Brunei Town's development unfolded in three major phases, with the third beginning in 1906 underMalcolm McArthur's guidance, focusing on transitioning the settlement to land.[15] His vision aimed to address the sanitation issues that were most severe in Kampong Ayer, a water village with 8,000–10,000 residents when theResidential system was introduced. McArthur prioritised constructing a land-based colony,[21] starting with his own residence,Bubungan Dua Belas, even though the sultan's palace remained in Kampong Ayer.[22] By 1910, Chinese immigrants had opened shops, further establishing the colony on land.[15]
In 1911 the water village, largely populated byMalay Muslim and a smallKedayan community in nearby areas, was home to many houses built over water.[23] The capital endured severe hardship after losingLimbang, which had provided essential resources to river villagers; this loss also undermined SultanHashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin's prestige and authority amid growing economic challenges.[24] In 1920, the area was officially designated as Brunei's capital and municipal territory.[15] Along the western riverbanks, government buildings and a mosque were constructed in the same year.[9] Later on 1 January 1921, the Brunei Town Sanitary Board (BTSB) was established to oversee its development.[15] In 1922, SultanMuhammad Jamalul Alam II's decision to relocate his palace fromKampung Sultan Lama to the interior of Brunei Town[b] renewed interest in Resident McArthur's proposal for relocating theKampong Ayer community. His involvement inspired Kampong Ayer residents to consider mainland resettlement, and relocation efforts in the 1920s began expanding beyond thecity centre to areas likeTungkadeh andKumbang Pasang, marking a significant shift in Brunei's urban development.[26]
Aerial photograph of Brunei Town under Allied bombing in 1945Naval bombardment prior to the Allied landings atMuara Beach
On 22 December 1941, Brunei Town was overrun by the Japanese, who had launched an assault starting inKuala Belait. To British officers they had seized, the Japanese declared their intention to free Asia from colonial rule.[27] Due to anAllied embargo that hampered the local economy, Brunei Town experienced extreme economic duress during theJapanese occupation. On 22 December 1941, SultanAhmad Tajuddin, who was based inKampong Sumbiling, surrendered toGeneral Tawaguchi. By encouraging agriculture and requiring farmers to turn over a percentage of their harvests, Japan sought to integrate Brunei's culture and economy with its own, appointingIbrahim Mohammad Jahfar as head of administration under Governor Takamura.[28] The Japanese instituted stringent cultural initiatives, such as teaching Japanese language and values and establishing youth groups like the Brunei Malay Organisation, in an effort to exploit the oil riches. The town was brutally bombarded by Allied forces beginning in November 1944 and subjected to extreme brutality by the Japanese military police, theKempeitai.[29]
After three days of warfare, American and Australian forces captured Brunei on 10 June 1945, but Brunei Town suffered significant damage. Brunei Malays had a stronger sense of national identity at this time, and local partners went on to play important roles in the burgeoning nationalist movement.[29] The town's wartime population of 16,000 was reduced to a small number of people who remained when the war came to a close due to Allied bombs and food shortages. Residents were forced to observe from neighboring hills or take cover in the bush after the bombers destroyed almost all of the town's homes and businesses. Bruneians started reconstructing their homes out of the debris left by the bombs after the Japanese withdrew into the forest in June 1945.[30]
Brunei Town (right) in 1947
The town became a focal point for important institutional and religious transformation following the war. To further Islamic matters, a board of 19 notable individuals and not all of them were religious experts, was formed in 1948. To increase the sultan's legitimacy in the face of British scrutiny, this reform sought to standardise religious courts, codifyIslamic law, and enhance the management of Islamic services under his direct control. Despite having little contact with Brunei's western regions, new groups like theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation contributed to the region's religious life in the 1950s, which witnessed a considerable increase in religious activity in the town. Despite the oil industry's fast growth in urban areas likeSeria andKuala Belait, no clear regional religious identity was able to emerge because of the close institutional ties between Brunei Town's religious establishment and the surrounding districts.[31]
Brunei Town's city centre in 1950
In the post-war period, particularly throughout the 1950s and 1960s, Brunei focused on social and religious growth as well as urban reconstruction. Years of occupation during thePacific War had left the city's infrastructure severely damaged, necessitating quick solutions like the rapid reconstruction of Brunei Town's stores and the temporary thatched-roof rebuild of Masjid Kajang.[32] In 1953, the town saw significant investment through a five-yearNational Development Plan funded withM$100 million, primarily for infrastructure, following SultanOmar Ali Saifuddien III's successful negotiation with the British for increased corporate taxes and expanded war reparations.[33] In 1953, a major development plan was introduced, dedicating $100 million to the city's growth—a significant investment for a community of just 54,000.[32] That same year on 1 August,[34] the BTSB was renamed the Brunei Town Municipal Board (BTMB) and administered by the British Resident until 1959. From then on, the Brunei–Muara District Officer took on dual roles as head and chairman of the BTMB.[15]
Brunei's population tripled to 83,877 by 1960 as a result of immigration brought on by oilfield finds in Belait.[23] The capital was now competing economically with the burgeoning cities of Seria and Kuala Belait. Although the majority did not hold Bruneian citizenship, the Chinese community, who were extensively involved in local commerce, increased to a quarter of the population by 1960.[35] TheBrunei revolt began on 8 December 1962, when theNorth Kalimantan National Army quickly captured Brunei Town, theoilfields at Seria, and portions ofSarawak andNorth Borneo. In response, British forces, includingGurkhas andRoyal Marines, regained control of most key centres by 11 December, resulting in the capture or surrender of around 2,700.[36]
Together with the expansion of the oil and gas industry, commercialisation began to transform Brunei's capital and a large number of public buildings were constructed, along with the development of a central business district in the 1970s and 1980s.[9][13] Brunei Town was formally renamed Bandar Seri Begawan on 4 October 1970, in honour of the retired Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III, with the renaming ceremony held at the capital.[37] On 1 January 1984, at midnight, SultanHassanal Bolkiah declared Brunei'sindependence at theTaman Haji Sir Muda Omar 'Ali Saifuddien.[38] TheMinistry of Home Affairs has been in charge of the Bandar Seri Begawan Municipal Board since the country's independence in 1984. The new town has grown along Jalan Berakas and Jalan Muara in the north and Jalan Tutong and Jalan Gadong in the west.[15] A 1998Asia Week study ranked Bandar Seri Begawan among Asia's top capital cities for 1999 and 2000, highlighting its cleanliness and security as key factors in its recognition.[39]
On 1 August 2007, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah gave consent for the expansion of the city from 12.87 km2 (4.97 sq mi) to 100.36 km2 (38.75 sq mi).[40]
The city is administered by the Bandar Seri Begawan Municipal Board within Bandar Seri Begawan Municipal Department, a government department within the Ministry of Home Affairs. The Municipal Board was established in 1921, originally as a Sanitary Board (Lembaga Kebersihan) which was, and is still, responsible for maintaining the cleanliness to the then Brunei Town.[41] It achieved the status ofbandaran (municipality) in 1935 with the conversion of the Sanitary Board into the current Municipal Board (Lembaga Bandaran).[41]
The Brunei–Muara District, encompassing 563 square kilometres (217 sq mi), is the smallest of Brunei's western districts and is home to Bandar Seri Begawan. The area contrasts sharply with the mountainous Temburong District to the east, featuring low hills, marshy coastal plains, and narrow alluvial valleys along key rivers.[45] BetweenTutong and the capital, hills approach the coast, while the coastal plains around Bandar Seri Begawan remain low and marshy, particularly to the south. Brunei's territory is divided by theLimbang region ofSarawak, which historically served as the capital's naturalhinterland until its cession to Sarawak in 1890.[46] The city is easily accessible from Bukit Kota, a 133-meter (436 ft) hill near the eastern boundary of Brunei's western area,[47] while TV broadcasts were transmitted from nearbySubok Hill.[48]
TheBrunei River, which flows intoBrunei Bay, is one of several waterways converging near Bandar Seri Begawan. Key subcatchments—Kedayan River, Sungai Damuan, and Sungai Imang—enter the low-lying, swampy Brunei River basin at various points, with Kedayan River joining close to the city. The area is bordered by ridges and estuarine plains, experiencing significant urban development. The neighboringTutong andBelait rivers add to the region's complex estuarine and floodplain systems.[49] A strip of thick coal seams runs along the coastline between Bandar Seri Begawan and Muara.[50]
Brunei has an equatorial,tropical rainforest climate more subject to theIntertropical Convergence Zone than to thetrade winds and rarecyclones. The climate is hot and wet.[51] The city sees heavy precipitation throughout the year, with the northeastmonsoon blowing from December to March and the southeast monsoon from around June to October.[52] The wettest day on record is 9 July 2020, when 662.0 millimetres (26.06 in) of rainfall was reported at the airport.
Climate data for Bandar Seri Begawan (Brunei Airport) (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1972–2020)
The Bruneian Census 2011 Report estimated the population of Bandar Seri Begawan to be approximately 20,000, while the metropolitan area had around 279,924.[55][56] The majority of Bruneians areMalays, withChinese being the most significant minority group.[56] Aboriginal groups such as theBisaya,Belait,Dusun,Kedayan,Lun Bawang,Murut, andTutong also exist. They are classified as part of the Malay ethnic groups and have been given theBumiputera privileges.[55] Large numbers of foreign workers are also found within Brunei and the capital city, with the majority being from Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia (mostly Betawi, Batak, Ambon, Minahasa, Aceh, Malay and Minangkabau), and theIndian subcontinent.[57][58]
Istana Darussalam[59] andIstana Darul Hana are former royal residences of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III, while theIstana Nurul Iman palace currently serves as the residence of Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah.[60] TheSecretariat Building, the oldest government structure, holds the seat of government known as "State Secretary."[61] TheRaja Ayang Mausoleum, dating back to the 15th century, is believed to honor a royal who was punished for incest, and it has since become a cultural site where visitors often seek blessings, despite some damage caused by offerings.Royal Mausoleum is the main burial ground for several sultans and royal family members of Brunei, adding to the country's historical significance.
The city's suburb incorporates nearby Kampong Ayer, in which houses were built onstilts. It stretches about 8 km (5.0 mi) along the Brunei River. Founded 1,000 years ago,[62] the village is considered the largest stilt settlement in the world, with approximately 30,000 residents and 2,000 houses.[63] The term "Venice of the East" was coined by Pigafetta in honour of the water village that he encountered at Kota Batu. Pigafetta was onFerdinand Magellan's last voyages when he visited Brunei in 1521.[64]
The capital is accessible by bus from Bandar Seri Begawan to the western regions of the country via road. Connectivity to the exclave ofTemburong is provided by theSultan Haji Omar Ali Saifuddien Bridge, which opened in 2020—before its construction, travellers had to pass throughSarawak, Malaysia, via the town ofLimbang. Additionally,Edinburgh Bridge links the city centre to the rest of the capital by spanning the Kedayan River.[72]
The main bus station in the capital is located in Jalan Cator underneath a multi-story car park. There are six bus routes servicing Bandar Seri Begawan area; the Central Line, Circle Line, Eastern Line, Southern Line, Western Line and Northern Line. Buses operate from 6.30 am until 6.00 pm except for bus No. 1 and 20 for which services extend into the night. All bus routes begin and terminate their journey at the main bus terminal. Buses heading to other towns in Brunei such as Tutong, Seria and Kuala Belait also depart from the main bus terminal andtaxicab.
Brunei International Airport serves the whole country. It is located 11 km (6.8 mi) from the town centre and can be reached in 10 minutes via the Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Highway.Royal Brunei Airlines, the national airline, has its head office in the RBA Plaza in the city.[73][74]
Ships up to 280 feet (85 m) long may dock in the former port ofDermaga Diraja Bandar Seri Begawan, which is located 17 miles upstream from the mouth of the Brunei River. A 124-foot passenger pier, a 730-foot reinforced concrete wharf, and an electrically powered ramp are among the port's amenities.[75] Ships may purchase purified fresh water in the capital for $2.00 per 1,000 gallons. The Marine Department keeps track of use and bills the ship's agent. The Bandar Seri Begawan Municipal Board is credited with the money received from these water sales.[76] Between the city andVictoria Harbour, a passenger boat that also transports mail runs every day (except for Sundays). On Mondays, Wednesdays, and Saturdays, an outboard motorboat service also carries mail and people between Bandar Seri Begawan toBangar inTemburong District.[77]
Awater taxi service known as 'penambang' is used for transportation between downtown Bandar Seri Begawan andKampong Ayer. Water taxis are the most common means of negotiating the waterways of Kampong Ayer. They can be hailed from the numerous "docking parts" along the banks of theBrunei River. Fares are negotiable. Regular water taxi and boat services depart forTemburong between 7:45 am and 4 pm daily, and also serve the Malaysian towns ofLimbang,Lawas,Sundar andLabuan. Aspeedboat is used for passengers travelling to Penambang fromBangar and Limbang.
The economy of Bandar Seri Begawan includes the production of furniture,[78] textiles,handicrafts, and timber.[79][80] For shopping, theGadong commercial area is popular, offering a range of shops, restaurants, and cafes. The traditionalKianggeh Market, believed to be Brunei's oldest market, mainly sells local cuisine, seafood, and fruit.[81]Gadong Night Market is known for its diverse food offerings, from local specialties like roti john, ambuyat, and satay to exotic fruits such as durian and jackfruit.[82]
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