| Brugmansia | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Brugmansia 'Feingold' | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Asterids |
| Order: | Solanales |
| Family: | Solanaceae |
| Subfamily: | Solanoideae |
| Tribe: | Datureae |
| Genus: | Brugmansia Pers. |
| Species | |
See text | |
| Synonyms | |
MethysticodendronR.E.Schult. | |
Brugmansia is agenus of seven species of flowering plants in the nightshade familySolanaceae.[2] They are woody trees or shrubs, with pendulous flowers, and have no spines on their fruit. Their large, fragrant flowers give them their common name ofangel's trumpets, adjacent to the nickname devil's trumpets of the closely related genusDatura.
Brugmansia species are among the most toxic ofornamental plants, containingtropane alkaloids of the type also responsible for the toxicity anddeliriant effects of bothjimsonweed and the infamousdeadly nightshade.[2][3] All seven species are known only incultivation or asescapees from cultivation, and no wild plants have ever been confirmed. They are therefore listed asExtinct in the Wild by theIUCN Red List, although they are popular ornamental plants and still exist wild outside their native range as introduced species.[4] It is suspected that their extinction in the wild is due to the extinction of some animal which previously dispersed the seeds,[5] with human cultivation having ensured the genus's continued survival.
Brugmansia are large shrubs or small trees, with semi-woody, often many-branched trunks. They can reach heights of 3–11 m (10–36 ft). The leaves arealternately arranged along the stems, generally large, 10–30 cm (4–12 in) long and 4–18 cm (2–7 in) across, with an entire or coarsely toothed margin, and are often covered with fine hairs. The name "angel's trumpet" refers to the large, pendulous, trumpet-shaped flowers, 14–50 cm (6–20 in) long and 10–35 cm (4–14 in) across at the opening. They come in shades of white, yellow, pink, orange, green, or red. Most have a strong, pleasing fragrance that is most noticeable in the evening. Flowers may be single, double, or more.
Linnaeus first classified these plants as part ofDatura with his 1753 description of"Datura arborea". Then in 1805,C. H. Persoon transferred them into a separate genus,Brugmansia, named for Dutch naturalistSebald Justinus Brugmans.[4] For another 168 years, various authors placed them back and forth between the genera ofBrugmansia andDatura, until in 1973, with his detailed comparison of morphological differences, T.E. Lockwood settled them as separate genera, where they have stayed unchallenged since.[6]
Currently, there are seven recognized species:[7]
| Section | Image | Scientific name | Distribution |
|---|---|---|---|
| Brugmansia |  | Brugmansia aureaLagerh. | Andes - Venezuela to Ecuador |
_(15608067765).jpg) | Brugmansia insignis(Barb.Rodr.) Lockwood ex R.E.R.E.Schult. | Eastern Andes foothills - Colombia to Bolivia and occasionally Brazil | |
 | Brugmansia suaveolens(Willd.)Sweet | Southeast Brazil | |
 | Brugmansia versicolorLagerh. | Ecuador | |
| Sphaerocarpium |  | Brugmansia arborea(L.)Sweet | Andes - Ecuador to northern Chile |
 | Brugmansia sanguinea(Ruiz &Pav.)D.Don | Andes - Colombia to northern Chile | |
 | Brugmansia vulcanicola(A.S.Barclay)R.E.Schult. | Andes - Colombia to Ecuador |
These species are then divided into two natural, genetically isolated groups.[8]Brugmansia sectionBrugmansia (the warm-growing group) includes the speciesaurea,insignis,sauveolens, andversicolor.Brugmansia sectionSphaerocarpium (the cold group) includes the speciesarborea,sanguinea, andvulcanicola.[7]
Two of these species were challenged by Lockwood in his 1973 doctoral thesis.[9]First,Brugmansia vulcanicola was said to be a subspecies ofB. sanguinea, but this was refuted by Lockwood's former mentor,R. E. Schultes in 1977.[10]Second, Lockwood proposed that the speciesB. insignis was instead a hybrid of the combination (B. suaveolens ×B. versicolor) ×B. suaveolens. This was later disproved by crossbreeding experiments done by the Preissels, published in 1997.[4]
Brugmansia are native to tropical regions of South America, along the Andes from Venezuela to northern Chile, and also in south-eastern Brazil.[4] They are grown as ornamental container plants worldwide, and have becomenaturalized in isolated tropical areas around the globe, including within North America, Africa, Australia, and Asia.[11][12][13][14]
MostBrugmansia are fragrant in the evenings to attract pollinating moths.[15] One species lacking scent, the red-floweredBrugmansia sanguinea, is pollinated by long-billed hummingbirds.[4]Brugmansia have two main stages to their life cycle. In the initial vegetative stage the young seedling grows straight up on usually a single stalk, until it reaches its first main fork at 80–150 cm (2.6–4.9 ft) high. It will not flower until after it has reached this fork, and then only on new growth above the fork. Cuttings taken from the lower vegetative region must also grow to a similar height before flowering, but cuttings from the upper flowering region will often flower at a very low height.[4]
One interesting example of plant/animal interaction involves the butterflyPlacidula euryanassa, which usesBrugmansia suaveolens as one of its main larval foods. It has been shown that these can sequester the plant's tropane alkaloids and store them through thepupal stage on to the adult butterfly, where they are then used as a defense mechanism, making themselves less palatable tovertebrate predators.[16]
Brugmansia seed dispersal was probably formerly accomplished by mammalianmegafauna, extinct since thePleistocene.Brugmansia has long been extinct in the wild as their fruits now shrivel on the plants without progeny.[17] They have been maintained in cultivation as a source of psychotropic drugs, as well as for ornamental purposes, following the loss of their evolutionary seed dispersal partner by humans.[18]
Brugmansia are most often grown today as flowering ornamental plants.
Brugmansia containsdelirianthallucinogenictropane alkaloids (atropine,scopolamine, andhyoscyamine) which causedelirium andhallucinations.[2] Inmodern medicine, these tropane alkaloids found inBrugmansia and other related members of Solanaceae have proven medical value for theirspasmolytic,anti-asthmatic,anticholinergic,narcotic, andanesthetic properties, although many of these alkaloids, or their equivalents, are now artificially synthesized.[19]
Brugmansia species have also traditionally been used in manySouth Americanindigenous cultures in medical preparations and as anentheogen in religious and spiritual ceremonies.[20] Medicinally, they have mostly been used externally as part of apoultice,tincture,ointment, or where the leaves are directly appliedtransdermally to the skin. Traditional external uses have included the treating of aches and pains,dermatitis,orchitis,arthritis,rheumatism, headaches, infections, and as ananti-inflammatory. They have been used internally much more rarely due to the inherent dangers of ingestion. Internal uses, in highly diluted preparations, and often as a portion of a larger mix, have included treatments for stomach and muscle ailments, as adecongestant, to induce vomiting, to expel worms and parasites, and as a sedative.[21][22][23][24]
Several South American cultures have usedBrugmansia species as a treatment for unruly children, so that they might be admonished directly by their ancestors in the spirit world, and thereby become more compliant. Mixed with maize beer and tobacco leaves, it has been used to drug wives and slaves before they wereburied alive with their dead lord.[21][25][26]
In the Northern Peruvian Andes, shamans (curanderos) traditionally usedBrugmansia species forinitiation,divination, andblack magic rituals.[21] In some Latin American countries such as Colombia and Peru, members of the genusBrugmansia are reportedly used bymalevolent sorcerers or "bad shamans" in someayahuasca brews in attempt to take advantage of tourists.[27] The species that are typically used for these purposes includeBrugmansia suaveolens andBrugmansia arborea among others.[28]
All parts ofBrugmansia are potentially poisonous, with the seeds and leaves being especially dangerous.[23][29]Brugmansia are rich inscopolamine (hyoscine),hyoscyamine, and several othertropane alkaloids which can lead toanticholinergictoxidrome anddelirium.[30]Effects of ingestion can include paralysis ofsmooth muscles, confusion,tachycardia, dry mouth, constipation, tremors, migraine headaches, poor coordination, delusions, visual and auditory hallucinations,mydriasis, rapid onsetcycloplegia, and death.[31][32][33]
Thehallucinogenic effects ofBrugmansia were described in the journalPathology as "terrifying rather than pleasurable".[34] The author Christina Pratt, inAn Encyclopedia of Shamanism, says that "Brugmansia induces a powerful trance with violent and unpleasant effects, sickening after effects, and at times temporary insanity".[23] These hallucinations are often characterized by complete loss of awareness that one is hallucinating, disconnection from reality (psychosis), andamnesia of the episode, such as one example reported inEuropean Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience of a young man who amputated his own penis and tongue after drinking only one cup ofBrugmansia sanguinea tea.[35]
In 1994 in Florida, 112 people were admitted to hospitals after ingestingBrugmansia,[36] leading one municipality to prohibit the purchase, sale, or cultivation ofBrugmansia plants.[4][37][38] The concentrations of alkaloids in all parts of the plant differ markedly. They even vary with the seasons and the level of hydration, so it is nearly impossible to determine a safe level of alkaloid exposure.[31]
In 2022The BMJ reported the following case: A woman in her 50s presented to the emergency department with blurred vision and pupil asymmetry for 3 hours. The right pupil was dilated, while the left was normal. A detailed history revealed that she had been pruning plants in her garden, when the blurred vision started. She did not complain of any other symptom. When all tests proved normal, she was finally asked to provide a photo of her garden.Brugmansia suaveolens (angel's trumpet) was identified in the picture. On asking specific history, she reported rubbing her right eye after touching the plant's leaves and flowers.[39] Anecdotally, this is an example ofBrugmansias highly toxic properties, where even touching the leaves and flowers transferred sufficient amounts of active principles to the hand.
Brugmansia are easily grown in a moist, fertile, well-drained soil, in sun to part shade, in frost-free climates. They begin to flower in mid to late spring in warm climates and continue into the fall (autumn), often continuing as late as early winter in warm conditions. In cool winters, outdoor plants need protection from frost,[40] but the roots are hardier, and may resprout in late spring. The species from the higher elevations, inB. sectionSphaerocarpium, prefer moderate temperatures and cool nights, and may not flower if temperatures are very hot. MostBrugmansia may be propagated easily by rooting 10–20 cm (4–8 in) cuttings taken from the end of a branch during the summer.Severalhybrids and numerouscultivars have been developed for use as ornamental plants.B.× candida is a hybrid betweenB. aurea andB. versicolor;B.× flava is a hybrid betweenB. arborea andB. sanguinea; andB.× cubensis[8] is a hybrid betweenB. suaveolens,B. versicolor, andB. aurea. There are cultivars producing double flowers, and some with variegated leaves. The cultivarsB. ×candida 'Grand Marnier'[41] and 'Knightii'[42] have gained theRoyal Horticultural Society'sAward of Garden Merit.[43]
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