Thearchaeological period during which bronze was the hardest metal in widespread use is known as theBronze Age. The beginning of the Bronze Age in westernEurasia and India is conventionally dated to the mid-4thmillennium BCE (~3500 BCE), and to the early 2nd millennium BCE in China;[1] elsewhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by theIron Age, which started about 1300 BCE and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BCE, although bronze continued to be much more widely used than it is in modern times.
Because historical artworks were often made of bronzes andbrasses (alloys of copper and zinc) of different metallic compositions, modern museum and scholarly descriptions of older artworks increasingly use the generalized term "copper alloy" instead of the names of individual alloys. This is done (at least in part) to prevent database searches from failing merely because of errors or disagreements in the naming of historic copper alloys.[2]
The wordbronze (1730–1740) is borrowed fromMiddle Frenchbronze (1511), itself borrowed from Italianbronzo'bell metal, brass' (13th century, transcribed inMedieval Latin asbronzium) from either:
bróntion, back-formation fromByzantine Greekbrontēsíon (βροντησίον, 11th century), perhaps fromBrentḗsion (Βρεντήσιον,'Brindisi'), reputed for its bronze;[3][4] or originally:
in its earliest form fromOld Persianbirinj, (برنج,'brass', modernberenj) andpiring (پرنگ)'copper',[5] from which also cameGeorgianbrinǯi (ბრინჯი),Turkishpirinç from "bir" (one) "birinç" (primary), andArmenianbrinj (բրինձ), also meaning'bronze'.
Hoard of bronze socketed axes from theBronze Age found in modern Germany. This was the most common tool of the period, and also seems to have been used as a store of value.Roman bronze nails with magical signs and inscriptions, 3rd-4th century AD.
The discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects that were harder and more durable than had previously been possible. Bronzetools,weapons,armor, andbuilding materials such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper ("Chalcolithic") predecessors. Initially, bronze was made out of copper andarsenic or from naturally or artificially mixed ores of those metals, formingarsenic bronze.[6]
The earliest known arsenic-copper-alloyartifacts come from a Yahya Culture (Period V 3800-3400 BCE) site, at Tal-i-Iblis on theIranian plateau, and were smelted from native arsenical copper and copper-arsenides, such asalgodonite anddomeykite.[7][8]
Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the alloying process could be more easily controlled, and the resulting alloy was stronger and easier to cast. Also,unlike those of arsenic, metallic tin and the fumes from tin refining arenot toxic.
Tin became the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BCE.[11]Ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together (exceptions includeCornwall in the United Kingdom, one ancient site in Thailand and one in Iran), so serious bronze work has always involved trade with other regions.Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a major influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a major source of tin was the British deposits of ore inCornwall, which were traded as far asPhoenicia in the easternMediterranean. In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artifacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented astore of value and an indicator of social status. In Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes (illustrated above), are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. WithChinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources, the case is clear. These were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings.
Though bronze, whoseVickers hardness is 60–258, is generally harder thanwrought iron, with a hardness of 30–80,[12] theBronze Age gave way to theIron Age after a serious disruption of the tin trade: thepopulation migrations of around 1200–1100 BCE reduced the shipment of tin around the Mediterranean and from Britain, limiting supplies and raising prices.[13] As the art of working in iron improved, iron became cheaper and improved in quality. As later cultures advanced from hand-wrought iron to machine-forged iron (typically made withtrip hammers powered by water), blacksmiths also learned how to makesteel, which is stronger and harder than bronze and holds a sharper edge longer.[14] Bronze was still used during the Iron Age and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day.
There are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is about 88%copper and 12%tin.[15]Alpha bronze consists of the alphasolid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to make coins, springs,turbines and blades. Historical "bronzes" are highly variable in composition, as most metalworkers probably used whatever scrap was on hand; the metal of the 12th-century EnglishGloucester Candlestick is bronze containing a mixture of copper,zinc, tin,lead,nickel,iron,antimony,arsenic and an unusually large amount ofsilver – between 22.5% in the base and 5.76% in the pan below the candle. The proportions of this mixture suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins. The 13th-centuryBenin Bronzes are in fact brass, and the 12th-centuryRomanesqueBaptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège is sometimes described as bronze and sometimes asbrass.
During the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were commonly used: "classic bronze", about 10% tin, was used in casting; "mild bronze", about 6% tin, was hammered from ingots to make sheets. Bladed weapons were primarily cast from classic bronze while helmets and armor were hammered from mild bronze.
Modern commercial bronze (90% copper and 10% zinc) and architectural bronze (57% copper, 3% lead, 40% zinc) are more properly regarded as brass alloys because they contain zinc as the main alloying ingredient. They are commonly used in architectural applications.[16][17] Plastic bronze contains a significant quantity of lead, which makes for improved plasticity,[18] and may have been used by the ancient Greeks in ship construction.[19]Silicon bronze has a composition of Si: 2.80–3.80%, Mn: 0.50–1.30%, Fe: 0.80% max., Zn: 1.50% max., Pb: 0.05% max., Cu: balance.[20] Other bronze alloys includealuminium bronze,phosphor bronze, manganese bronze,bell metal,arsenical bronze,speculum metal,bismuth bronze, andcymbal alloys.
Copper-basedalloys have lowermelting points than steel or iron and are more readily produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent denser than steel, although alloys usingaluminum orsilicon may be slightly less dense. Bronze conducts heat and electricity better than most steels. Copper-base alloys are generally more costly than steels but less so thannickel-base alloys.
Bronzes are typically ductile alloys and are considerably lessbrittle than cast iron. Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, andchemical properties. Some common examples are the highelectrical conductivity of pure copper, the low-friction properties of bearing bronze (bronze that has a high lead content— 6–8%), the resonant qualities of bell bronze (20% tin, 80% copper), and the resistance to corrosion byseawater of several bronze alloys.
The melting point of bronze is about 950 °C (1,742 °F) but varies depending on the ratio of the alloy components. Bronze is usually nonmagnetic, but certain alloys containing iron or nickel may have magnetic properties. Bronze typically oxidizes only superficially; once a copper oxide (eventually becomingcopper carbonate) layer is formed, the underlying metal isprotected from further corrosion. This can be seen on statues from the Hellenistic period. If copperchlorides are formed, a corrosion-mode called "bronze disease" will eventually destroy it completely.[21]
Bronze weight with an inscribed imperial order,Qin dynastyIndustrial products of the Bunting Brass and Bronze Company, 1912
Bronze, or bronze-like alloys and mixtures, were used for coins over a longer period. Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and ship fittings prior to the wide employment ofstainless steel owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water corrosion. Bronze is still commonly used in ship propellers and submerged bearings. In the 20th century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporarystatuary. Sculptors may prefer silicon bronze because of the ready availability of silicon bronze brazing rod, which allows color-matched repair of defects in castings. Aluminum is also used for the structural metal aluminum bronze. Bronze parts aretough and typically used forbearings, clips,electrical connectors andsprings.
Bronze also has lowfriction against dissimilar metals, making it important forcannons prior to moderntolerancing, where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel.[22] It is still widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of smallelectric motors. Phosphor bronze is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs. It is also used inguitar andpiano strings. Unlike steel, bronze struck against a hard surface will not generate sparks, so it (along withberyllium copper) is used to makehammers,mallets,wrenches and other durable tools to be used in explosive atmospheres or in the presence of flammable vapors. Bronze is used to makebronze wool for woodworking applications wheresteel wool would discoloroak. Phosphor bronze is used for ships' propellers, musical instruments, and electrical contacts.[23]Bearings are often made of bronze for its friction properties. It can be impregnated with oil to make the proprietaryOilite and similar material for bearings. Aluminum bronze is hard and wear-resistant, and is used for bearings and machine tool ways.[24] The Doehler Die Casting Co. of Toledo, Ohio were known for the production ofBrastil, a high tensile corrosion resistant bronze alloy.[25][26]
TheSeagram Building onNew York City'sPark Avenue is the "iconic glass box sheathed in bronze, designed byMies van der Rohe."[27] The Seagram Building was the first time that an entire building was sheathed in bronze.[28] TheGeneral Bronze Corporation fabricated 3,200,000 pounds (1,600 tons) of bronze at its plant inGarden City, New York.[28] The Seagram Building is a 38-story, 516-foot bronze-and-topaz-tinted glass building.[27] The building looks like a "squarish 38-story tower clad in a restrained curtain wall of metal and glass."[29] "Bronze was selected because of its color, both before and after aging, itscorrosion resistance, and itsextrusion properties.[28][27] In 1958, it was not only the most expensive building of its time — $36 million — but it was the first building in the world with floor-to-ceiling glass walls.[27] Mies van der Rohe achieved the crisp edges that were custom-made with specific detailing by General Bronze[28] and "even the screws that hold in the fixed glass-plate windows were made of brass."[27]
Bronze is widely used for castingbronze sculptures. Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a mould. Then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould.[30] TheAssyrian kingSennacherib (704–681 BCE) claims to have been the first to cast monumental bronze statues (of up to 30 tonnes) using two-part moulds instead of thelost-wax method.[31]
Bronze statues were regarded as the highest form of sculpture inAncient Greek art, though survivals are few, as bronze was a valuable material in short supply in theLate Antique and medieval periods. Many of the most famous Greek bronze sculptures are known through Roman copies in marble, which were more likely to survive. In India, bronze sculptures from theKushana (Chausa hoard) andGupta periods (Brahma from Mirpur-Khas, Akota Hoard,Sultanganj Buddha) and later periods (Hansi Hoard) have been found.[32] Indian Hindu artisans from the period of theChola empire inTamil Nadu used bronze to create intricate statues via the lost-wax casting method with ornate detailing depicting the deities ofHinduism. The art form survives to this day, with many silpis, craftsmen, working in the areas ofSwamimalai andChennai.
In antiquity other cultures also produced works ofhigh art using bronze. For example: in Africa, thebronze heads of theKingdom of Benin; in Europe, Grecian bronzes typically of figures fromGreek mythology; ineast Asia, Chinese ritual bronzes of theShang andZhou dynasty—more often ceremonial vessels but including some figurine examples. Bronze continues into modern times as one of the materials of choice for monumental statuary.
Ancient Egyptian statuette of aKushitepharaoh; 713–664 BCE; bronze, precious-metal leaf; height: 7.6 cm, width: 3.2 cm, depth: 3.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Etruscan tripod base for a thymiaterion (incense burner); 475-450 BCE; bronze; height: 11 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Ancient Greek statue ofEros sleeping; 3rd–2nd century BCE; bronze; 41.9 × 35.6 × 85.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Gupta sculpture of Buddha offering protection; late 6th–early 7th century; copper alloy; height: 47 cm, width: 15.6 cm, diameter: 14.3 cm; fromIndia (probablyBihar); Metropolitan Museum of Art
French or South Netherlandish Medieval caldron; 13th or 14th century; bronze and wrought iron; height: 37.5 cm, diameter: 34.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
FrenchNeoclassical mantel clock (pendule de cheminée); 1757–1760; gilded and patinated bronze, oak veneered with ebony, white enamel with black numerals, and other materials; 48.3 × 69.9 × 27.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Pair of FrenchChinoiserie firedogs; 1760–1770; gilt bronze; height (each): 41.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Pair of Chinese vases with French Rococo mounts; the vases: early 18th century, the mounts: 1760–70; hard-paste porcelain with gilt-bronze mounts; 32.4 x 16.5 x 12.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
French Neoclassical mantel clock ("Pendule Uranie"); 1764–1770; case: patinated bronze and gilded bronze, Dial: white enamel, movement: brass and steel; 71.1 × 52.1 × 26.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Pair of mounted vases (vase à monter); 1765–70; soft-paste porcelain and French gilt bronze; 28.9 x 17.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Winter; byJean-Antoine Houdon; 1787; bronze; 143.5 x 39.1 x 50.5 cm, height of the pedestal: 86.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Before it became possible to produce glass with acceptably flat surfaces, bronze was a standard material for mirrors. Bronze was used for this purpose in many parts of the world, probably based on independent discoveries. Bronze mirrors survive from the EgyptianMiddle Kingdom (2040–1750 BCE), and China from at leastc. 550 BCE. In Europe, theEtruscans were making bronze mirrors in the sixth century BCE, andGreek andRoman mirrors followed the same pattern. Although other materials such asspeculum metal had come into use, and Western glass mirrors had largely taken over, bronze mirrors were still being made in Japan and elsewhere in the eighteenth century, and are still made on a small scale inKerala, India.
Bronze is the preferred metal forbells in the form of a high tin bronze alloy known asbell metal, which is typically about 23% tin.
Nearly all professionalcymbals are made from bronze, which gives a desirable balance of durability andtimbre. Several types of bronze are used, commonlyB20 bronze, which is roughly 20% tin, 80% copper, with traces of silver, or the tougher B8 bronze made from 8% tin and 92% copper. As the tin content in a bell or cymbal rises, the timbre drops.[39]
Bronze is also used for the windings of steel andnylon strings of variousstringed instruments such as thedouble bass, piano,harpsichord, and guitar. Bronze strings are commonly reserved on pianoforte for the lower pitch tones, as they possess a superior sustain quality to that of high-tensile steel.[40]
Bronzes of various metallurgical properties are widely used in struckidiophones around the world, notably bells, singing bowls,gongs, cymbals, and other idiophones from Asia. Examples includeTibetansinging bowls, temple bells of many sizes and shapes,Javanesegamelan, and other bronzemusical instruments. The earliest bronze archeological finds in Indonesia date from 1–2 BCE, including flat plates probably suspended and struck by a wooden or bone mallet.[40][41] Ancient bronze drums from Thailand and Vietnam date back 2,000 years. Bronze bells from Thailand and Cambodia date back to 3600 BCE.
Some companies are now makingsaxophones from phosphor bronze (3.5 to 10% tin and up to 1% phosphorus content).[42] Bell bronze/B20 is used to make the tone rings of many professional modelbanjos.[43] The tone ring is a heavy (usually 3 lb; 1.4 kg) folded or arched metal ring attached to a thick wood rim, over which a skin, or most often, a plastic membrane (or head) is stretched – it is the bell bronze that gives the banjo a crisp powerful lower register and clear bell-like treble register.[44]
Bronze has also been used in coins; most "copper" coins are actually bronze, with about 4 percent tin and 1 percent zinc.[45]
As with coins, bronze has been used in the manufacture of various types ofmedals for centuries, and "bronze medals" are known in contemporary times for being awarded for third place in sporting competitions and other events. The term is now often used for third place even when no actual bronze medal is awarded. The usage in part arose from the trio ofgold,silver and bronze to represent the first threeAges of Man in Greek mythology: theGolden Age, when men lived among the gods; theSilver age, where youth lasted a hundred years; and theBronze Age, the era of heroes. It was first adopted for a sports event at the1904 Summer Olympics. At the 1896 event, silver was awarded to winners and bronze to runners-up, while at 1900 other prizes were given rather than medals.
Bronze is the normal material for the related form of theplaquette, normally a rectangular work of art with a scene inrelief, for a collectors' market.
Bronze is also associated with eighth wedding anniversaries.
There are over 125 references to bronze ('nehoshet'), which appears to be theHebrew word used for copper and any of its alloys. However, theOld Testament era Hebrews are not thought to have had the capability to manufacture zinc (needed to make brass) and so it is likely that 'nehoshet' refers to copper and its alloys with tin, now called bronze.[46] In the King James Version, there is no use of the word 'bronze' and 'nehoshet' was translated as 'brass'. Modern translations use 'bronze'. Bronze (nehoshet) was used widely in the Tabernacle for items such as the bronze altar (Exodus Ch.27), bronze laver (Exodus Ch.30), utensils, and mirror (Exodus Ch.38). It was mentioned in the account ofMoses holding up a bronze snake on a pole in Numbers Ch.21. In First Kings, it is mentioned that Hiram was very skilled in working with bronze, and he made many furnishings forSolomon's Temple including pillars, capitals, stands, wheels, bowls, and plates, some of which were highly decorative (see I Kings 7:13-47). Bronze was also widely used as battle armor and helmet, as in the battle ofDavid and Goliath in I Samuel 17:5-6;38 (also see II Chron. 12:10).
^Kahane, Henry; Kahane, Renée (1981). "Byzantium's Impact on the West: The Linguistic Evidence".Illinois Classical Studies.6 (2): 395.JSTOR23062525.
^OriginallyBerthelot, M.P.E. (1888). "Sur le nom du bronze chez les alchimistes grecs".Revue archéologique (in French):294–98.
^OriginallyLokotsch, Karl (1927).Etymologisches Wörterbuch der europäischen Wörter orientalischen Ursprungs (in German). Heidelberg: Carl Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung. p. 1657.
^abThornton, C.; Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C.; Liezers, M.; Young, S.M.M. (2002). "On pins and needles: tracing the evolution of copper-based alloying at Tepe Yahya, Iran, via ICP-MS analysis of Common-place items".Journal of Archaeological Science.29 (12):1451–60.Bibcode:2002JArSc..29.1451T.doi:10.1006/jasc.2002.0809.
^abcdEnnis, Thomas."Building is Designer's Testament"(PDF).The New York Times. No. November 10, 1957. pp. 313, 320. Retrieved17 December 2023.Seagram Building Marks Apex Of Mies van der Rohe's Career
^Savage, George (1968).A Concise History of Bronzes. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. Publishers. p. 17.
^for a translation of his inscription see the appendix inDalley, Stephanie (2013).The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced. OUP.ISBN978-0-19-966226-5.
^Indian bronze masterpieces: the great tradition: specially published for the Festival of India, Asharani Mathur, Sonya Singh, Festival of India, Brijbasi Printers, Dec 1, 1988
^"Tiffany Studios".The Charles Hosmer Morse Museum of American Art. Retrieved17 December 2023.
^"The Bronze Doors"(PDF).Supreme Court. Washington, DC: The Supreme Court. Retrieved23 December 2023."Out of all of our monumental projects, spread over two lifetimes, the Supreme Court doors are the only work that we ever signed – that's how important they were." – JOHN DONNELLY, JR., Sculptor
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