At the 2010 census, the population of historic Brittany was estimated to be 4,475,295. In 2017, the largest metropolitan areas wereNantes (934,165 inhabitants),Rennes (733,320 inhabitants), andBrest (321,364 inhabitants).[9] Brittany is the traditional homeland of theBreton people and is one of the sixCeltic nations,[2][10][4][5] retaininga distinct cultural identity that reflectsits history.A nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the French Republic, or independence from it.[11][12] Thereunification of Brittany is supported by half of the inhabitants of Brittany and of Loire-Atlantique, and is considered a prerequisite to further autonomy.[13][14]
The wordBrittany, along with itsFrench,Breton andGallo equivalentsBretagne,Breizh andBertaèyn, derive from theLatinBritannia, which means "land of theBritons". This word had been used by theRomans since the 1st century to refer to Great Britain, and more specifically theRoman province of Britain. This word derives from aGreek word, Πρεττανική (Prettanikḗ) or Βρεττανίαι (Brettaníai), used byPytheas, an explorer fromMassalia who visited theBritish Isles around 320 BC. The Greek word itself comes from the common Brythonic ethnonym reconstructed as*Pritanī, itself from Proto-Celtic*kʷritanoi (ultimately from Proto-Indo-European*kʷer- 'to cut, make').
In Roman times,Armorica included what is now Brittany. This was an indefinite region that extended along theEnglish Channel coast from theSeine estuary, then along the Atlantic coast to theLoire estuary and, according to several sources, maybe to theGaronne estuary. This term probably comes from aGallic word,aremorica, which means "close to the sea".[15] Another name,Letauia (in English "Litavis"), was used until the 12th century. It possibly means "wide and flat" or "to expand" and it gave theWelsh name for Brittany:Llydaw.[16]
After thefall of theWestern Roman Empire, manyCornish Britons settled in western Armorica toescape the Saxons and the region started to be calledBritannia, although this name only replacedArmorica in the sixth century or perhaps by the end of the fifth.[17]
Breton-speaking people may pronounce the wordBreizh in two different ways, according to their region of origin. Breton can be divided into two main dialects: theKLT (Kerne-Leon-Trégor) and the dialect ofVannes. KLT speakers pronounce it[brɛjs] and would write itBreiz, while the Vannetais speakers pronounce it[brɛχ] and would write itBreih. The official spelling is a compromise between both variants, with az and anh together. In 1941, efforts to unify the dialects led to the creation of the so-calledBreton zh, a standard which has never been widely accepted.[1] On its side, Gallo has never had a widely accepted writing system and several ones coexist. For instance, the name of the region in that language can be writtenBertaèyn inELG script, orBertègn inMOGA, and a couple of other scripts also exist.[18]
Brittany has been inhabited by humans since theLower Palaeolithic. This population was scarce and very similar to the otherNeanderthals found in the whole of Western Europe. Their only original feature was a distinct culture, called "Colombanian".[19] One of the oldesthearths in the world has been found inPlouhinec, Finistère.
Homo sapiens settled in Brittany around 35,000 years ago. They replaced or absorbed the Neanderthals and developed localindustries, similar to theChâtelperronian or to theMagdalenian. After thelast glacial period, the warmer climate allowed the area to become heavily wooded. At that time, Brittany was populated by relatively large communities who started to change their lifestyles from a life of hunting and gathering, to become settled farmers. Agriculture was introduced during the5th millennium BC by migrants from the south and east. However, theNeolithic Revolution in Brittany did not happen due to a radical change of population, but by slow immigration and exchange of skills.[20]
Neolithic Brittany is characterised by importantmegalithic production and sites such asQuelfénnec, it is sometimes designated as the "core area" of megalithic culture.[21] The oldest monuments,cairns, were followed by princely tombs andstone rows. TheMorbihandépartement, on the southern coast, comprises a large share of these structures, including theCarnac stones and the Broken Menhir of Er Grah in theLocmariaquer megaliths, the largest single stone erected by Neolithic people.[citation needed]
TheNamnetes, who lived in the currentLoire-Atlantiquedépartement (in today's administrativerégion ofPays de la Loire), north of theLoire. They gave their name to the city ofNantes. The south bank of the river was occupied by an allied tribe, the Ambilatres,[23] whose existence and territory remain unsure.[22]
TheRedones (orRhedones), who lived in the eastern part of theIlle-et-Vilainedépartement. They gave their name to the city ofRennes (Roazhon in Breton language, in the center of the département) and to the town ofRedon (in the south of thedépartement, bordering thedépartement ofLoire-Atlantique in the administrativerégion ofPays de la Loire, where its suburb town ofSaint-Nicolas-de-Redon is located; however the city of Redon was founded around AD 832 under the initial name ofRiedones, long after theRedones people were assimilated to Bretons; the cultural link betweenRiedones and the formerRedones people is highly probable but difficult to recover and the name ofRiedones may have been written from a local usage preserving the name of the former people in the vernacular oral language from a reading of an ancient Greek orthography).
During theGallic Wars, theVeneti were defeated in theBattle of Morbihan off the coast of Brittany. At the conclusion of the Gallic Wars, the region became part of theRoman Republic in 51 BC. It was included in the province ofGallia Lugdunensis in 13 BC. Gallic towns and villages were redeveloped according to Roman standards, and several cities were created. These cities are Condate (Rennes), Vorgium (Carhaix), Darioritum (Vannes) and Condevincum or Condevicnum (Nantes). Together with Fanum Martis (Corseul), they were the capitals of the localcivitates. They all had agrid plan and aforum, and sometimes a temple, abasilica,thermae or anaqueduct, likeCarhaix.
The Romans also built three major roads through the region. However, most of the population remained rural. The free peasants lived in small huts, whereas the landowners and their employees lived in propervillae rusticae. The Gallic deities continued to be worshiped, and were often assimilated to the Roman gods. Only a small number of statues depicting Roman gods were found in Brittany, and most of the time they combine Celtic elements.[25]
During the 3rd century AD, the region was attacked several times byFranks,Alamanni and pirates. At the same time, the local economy collapsed and many farming estates were abandoned. To face the invasions, many towns and cities were fortified, likeNantes,Rennes andVannes.[25]
This area was also affected by theBagaudae (also spelled bacaudae) during this period, which were groups of peasant insurgents. The Bagaudae achieved some temporary and scattered successes under the leadership of peasants as well as former members of local ruling elites.
AFrench map of the traditional regions of Brittany inAncien Régime France. The earlier state ofDomnonia orDomnonée that united Brittany comprised the counties along the north coast
The history behind such an establishment is unclear, but medieval Breton, Angevin and Welsh sources connect it to a figure known asConan Meriadoc. Welsh literary sources assert that Conan came to Armorica on the orders of the Roman usurperMagnus Maximus,[a] who sent some of his British troops to Gaul to enforce his claims and settled them in Armorica. This account was supported by the Counts of Anjou, who claimed descent from a Roman soldier[b] expelled from Lower Brittany by Conan on Magnus's orders.[citation needed]
The army recruited forFlavius Aetius to combatAttila the Hun at theBattle of the Catalaunian Plains included Romans, Visigoths, Franks, Alans and Armoricans, amongst others. The Alans were placed front and centre, opposite the Huns. The Armoricans supplied archers who attacked the Huns' front lines during the main battle and thwarted Attila's night assault on the Roman camp with a hail of arrows "like rain". After the battle was won, Aetius sent the Alans to Armorica and Galicia.
The late 5th century Brittonic leaderRiothamus received correspondence from the eminent Roman juristSidonius Apollinaris and was called "King of the Britons" byJordanes. Some suggest that he was a Breton, though others believe that he was from Britain, pointing to the passage that he arrived in the land of the Biturges "by way of Ocean", which would hardly have been efficient or required for a Breton. Both historians describe Riothamus's losing battle against KingEuric of the Visigoths atDéols around the year 470.
In response to a plea from the Roman EmperorAnthemius, Riothamus had led twelve thousand men to establish a military presence inBourges in central Gaul, but was betrayed byArvandus, the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, and subsequently ambushed by Euric's army.[c] After a long battle, the Armorican survivors escaped toAvallon inBurgundy, after which they are lost to history. According to Breton king-lists, Riotham survived and reigned as Prince ofDomnonia until his death sometime between 500 and 520, though this may have been a different person.
Brythonic (British Celtic) settlement increased during theAnglo-Saxon invasion of Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries to seek refuge from the Anglo-Saxon invaders. It is from this event that Brittany derives its name.[28]
TheBrythonic community around the 6th century. The sea was a communication medium rather than a barrier.
Scholars such asLéon Fleuriot have suggested a two-wave model of migration from Britain which saw the emergence of an independent Breton people and established the dominance of theBrythonicBreton language in Armorica.[29] Theirpetty kingdoms are now known by the names of the counties that succeeded them—Domnonée (Devon),Cornouaille (Cornwall),Léon (Caerleon); but these names in Breton andLatin are in most cases identical to their British homelands. (In Breton and French, however,Gwened orVannetais continued the name of the indigenousVeneti.) Although the details remain confused, these colonies consisted of related and intermarried dynasties which repeatedly unified (as by the 7th-centurySaint Judicaël) before splintering again according to Celtic inheritance practices.[citation needed]
At the beginning of the medieval era, Brittany was divided among three kingdoms,Domnonea,Cornouaille andBroërec. These realms eventually merged into a single state during the 9th century.[30][31] The unification of Brittany was carried out byNominoe, king between 845 and 851 and considered as the BretonPater Patriae.[32] Among the immigrant Britons, there were some clergymen who helped theevangelisation of the region, which was still pagan, particularly in rural areas.[citation needed]
Brittany was heavily attacked by theVikings at the beginning of the 10th century. The kingdom lost its eastern territories, includingNormandy andAnjou, and the county ofNantes was given toFulk I of Anjou in 909. Nantes was seized by the Vikings in 914. At this time Brittany was also called Lydwiccum.[33]
Nantes was eventually liberated byAlan II of Brittany in 937 with the support of his godbrother KingÆthelstan of England.
Alan II totally expelled the Vikings from Brittany and recreated a strong Breton state. For aiding in removing the problem, Alan paid homage toLouis IV of France (who was Æthelstan's nephew and had returned from England in the same year as Alan II) and thus Brittany ceased to be a kingdom and became a duchy.
Several Breton lords helpedWilliam the Conqueror to invade England and the Bretons formed over a third of the landing force in 1066. They received large estates there (e.g. William's double-second cousinAlan Rufus and the latter's brotherBrian of Brittany). The Bretons helped to liberate the Cornish, replacing Anglo-Saxon land owners. Some of these lords were powerful rivals.
Medieval Brittany was far from being a united nation. The French king maintained envoys in Brittany, alliances contracted by local lords often overlapped and there was no specific Breton unity. For example, Brittany replacedLatin with French as its official language in the 13th century, 300 years before France did so, and theBreton language did not have formal status.
Theforeign policy of the Duchy changed many times; the Dukes were usually independent, but they often contracted alliances with England or France depending on who was threatening them at that point. Their support for each nation became very important during the 14th century because the English kings had started to claim the French throne.
TheBreton War of Succession, a local episode of theHundred Years' War, saw the House ofBlois, backed by the French, fighting with the House ofMontfort, backed by the English. The Montforts won in 1364 and enjoyed a period of total independence until the end of the Hundred Years' War, because France was weakened and stopped sending royal envoys to the Court of Brittany.
Brittany importantly lost theMad War against France in 1488, mostly because of its internal divisions that were exacerbated by the corruption at the court ofFrancis II, Duke of Brittany. Indeed, some rebel Breton lords were fighting on the French side.
Anne of Brittany is regarded in Brittany as a conscientious ruler who defended the duchy against France.
As a result of theMad War, the DukeFrancis II could not have his daughterAnne married without the king of France's consent. Nonetheless, she married theHoly Roman Emperor in 1490, leading to a crisis with France.Charles VIII of France besiegedRennes and had the marriage cancelled. He eventually marriedAnne of Brittany. After he died childless, the duchess had to marry his heir and cousinLouis XII. Anne unsuccessfully tried to preserve Breton independence, but she died in 1514, and the union between the two crowns was formally carried out byFrancis I in 1532. He granted several privileges to Brittany, such as exemption from thegabelle, a tax on salt that was very unpopular in France.[34] Under theAncien Régime, Brittany and France were governed as separate countries but under the same crown, so Breton aristocrats in the Frenchroyal court were classed asPrinces étrangers (foreign princes).
From the 15th to the 18th century, Brittany reached an economic golden age.[d] The region was located on the seaways near Spain, England and theNetherlands and it greatly benefited from the creation of aFrench colonial empire. Local seaports likeBrest andSaint-Brieuc quickly expanded, andLorient, first spelled "L'Orient", was founded in the 17th century.Saint-Malo then was known for itscorsairs, Brest was a major base for the French Navy andNantes flourished with theAtlantic slave trade. On its side, the inland providedhemp ropes and canvas andlinen sheets. However,Colbertism, which encouraged the creation of many factories, did not favour the Breton industry because most of the royal factories were opened in other provinces. Moreover, several conflicts between France and England led the latter to restrain its trade, and the Breton economy went into recession during the 18th century.
Two significant revolts occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries: theRevolt of the papier timbré (1675) and thePontcallec conspiracy (1719). Both arose from attempts to resist centralisation and assert Breton constitutional exceptions to tax.[35]
The Duchy was legally abolished with theFrench Revolution that began in 1789 – and in 1790 the province of Brittany was divided into fivedepartments: Côtes-du-Nord (laterCôtes-d'Armor),Finistère,Ille-et-Vilaine, Loire-Inférieure (laterLoire-Atlantique) andMorbihan. Brittany essentially lost all its special privileges that existed under the Duchy. Three years later, the area became a centre ofroyalist and Catholic resistance to the Revolution during theChouannerie.
During the 19th century, Brittany remained in economic recession, and many Bretons emigrated to other French regions, particularly to Paris. This trend remained strong until the beginning of the 20th century. Nonetheless, the region was also modernising, with new roads and railways being built, and some places being industrialised.Nantes specialised inshipbuilding and food processing (sugar, exotic fruits and vegetables, fish, etc.),Fougères in glass and shoe production, andmetallurgy was practised in small towns such asChâteaubriant andLochrist, known for itslabour movements.
The mutineers ofFouesnant arrested by the National Guard ofQuimper in 1792
The region remained deeply Catholic, and during theSecond Empire, the conservative values were strongly reasserted. When the Republic was re-established in 1871, there were rumours that Breton troops were mistrusted and mistreated atCamp Conlie during theFranco-Prussian War because of fears that they were a threat to the Republic.[37]
At the same time, theCeltic Revival led to the foundation of theBreton Regionalist Union (URB) and later to independence movements linked to Irish, Welsh, and Scottish and Cornish independence parties in the UK, and topan-Celticism. However, the audience of these movements remained very low and their ideas did not reach a large public until the 20th century. TheSeiz Breur movement, created in 1923, permitted a Breton artistic revival[39] but its ties withNazism and thecollaborationism of theBreton National Party during World War II weakened Breton nationalism in the post-war period.
Brittany lost 240,000 men during theFirst World War.[40] TheSecond World War was also catastrophic for the region. It was invaded byNazi Germany in 1940 and freed afterOperation Cobra in August 1944. However, the areas aroundSaint-Nazaire andLorient only surrendered on 10 and 11 May 1945, several days after the German capitulation. The two port towns had been virtually destroyed by Allied air raids, likeBrest andSaint-Malo, and other towns, such asNantes andRennes, had also suffered.
In 1956, Brittany was legally reconstituted as theRegion of Brittany, although the region excluded the ducal capital ofNantes and thesurrounding area. Nevertheless, Brittany retained its cultural distinctiveness, and a new cultural revival emerged during the 1960s and 1970s. Bilingual schools were opened, singers started to write songs in Breton, and ecological catastrophes such as theAmoco Cadiz oil spill or theErika oil spill and water pollution from intensive pig farming favoured new movements to protect the natural heritage.
Brittany as a political entity disappeared in 1790, when it was divided into fivedépartements. The Breton départements more or less correspond to the nine Catholicdioceses that appeared at the beginning of the Middle Ages. They were often called "pays" or "bro" ("country" in French andBreton) and they also served as fiscal and military districts.[41] Brittany is also divided betweenLower Brittany ("Basse Bretagne" and "Breizh Izel"), corresponding to the western half, whereBreton is traditionally spoken, andUpper Brittany ("Haute Bretagne" and "Breizh Uhel"), corresponding to the eastern half, whereGallo is traditionally spoken. The historical Breton dioceses were:
During theFrench Revolution, four dioceses were suppressed and the five remaining ones were modified to have the same administrative borders as thedépartements.
Brittany has several historical capital cities. When it was an independent duchy, theEstates of Brittany, which can be compared to a parliament, met in various towns:Dinan,Ploërmel,Redon,Rennes,Vitré,Guérande, and, most of all,Vannes, where they met 19 times, andNantes, 17 times. The Court and the government were also very mobile, and each dynasty favoured its own castles and estates. The dukes mostly lived inNantes,Vannes,Redon,Rennes,Fougères,Dol-de-Bretagne,Dinan andGuérande. All these towns except Vannes and Guérande are located inUpper Brittany, thus not in the Breton speaking area.
Among all these towns, onlyNantes,Rennes andVannes, which were the biggest ones, could really pretend to the capital status. The dukes were crowned in Rennes and they had a large castle there; it was however destroyed during the 15th century. Vannes, on its side, was the seat of the Chamber of Accounts and of the Parliament until the union with France. The Parliament was then transferred to Rennes, and the Chamber of Accounts to Nantes. Nantes, nicknamed "the city of the Dukes of Brittany", was also the permanent residence of the last dukes. TheChâteau des ducs de Bretagne still stands in the city centre. Nowadays,Rennes is the only official capital of theregion of Brittany. It is also the seat of anecclesiastical province encompassing Brittany and thePays de la Loire region.
During theFrench Revolution, Brittany was divided into fivedépartements, each made up of three or fourarrondissements. The arrondissements are further divided incantons, which are themselves made up of one or severalcommunes. The communes and the départements have a local council elected by their citizens, but arrondissements and cantons are not run by elected officials. The cantons serve as anelectoral district for the election of the département councils and arrondissements are run by a subprefect appointed by theFrench president. The president also appoints a prefect in each département.
Because the départements are small and numerous, the French government tried to create wider regions during the 20th century. For the Breton nationalists, it was an occasion to recreate Brittany as a political and administrative entity, but the new region had to be economically efficient.Nantes and itsdépartement,Loire-Atlantique, raised concerns because they were off-centered, more integrated with theLoire Valley than with the Breton peninsula. The French government and local politicians also feared thatNantes, because of its population and its former Breton capital status, would have maintained a harmful competition withRennes to get the regional institutions and investments.
Several drafts for French regions had been proposed since the 1920s, and the definitive regions were drawn in 1956. The new Brittany had four départements, andLoire-Atlantique formed thePays de la Loire region together with parts ofAnjou,Maine andPoitou. In 1972, the regions received their present competencies, with an elected regional council. Since then, theregion of Brittany has had its owncouncil and administrative bodies.
ThisLoire-Atlantique road sign reads "welcome to historical Brittany".
When theregion of Brittany was created, several local politicians opposed the exclusion ofLoire-Atlantique, and the question still remains.
The obstacles to reunification are the same as in 1956: havingNantes in Brittany could harm the position ofRennes and create an economic imbalance betweenLower andUpper Brittany. Moreover, thePays de la Loire region could not exist withoutLoire-Atlantique, because it would lose its political and economic capital. Without Loire-Atlantique, the other départements would not form an efficient region any more, and would have to integrate neighbouring regions such as theCentre-Val de Loire andNouvelle-Aquitaine.
However, several institutions have backed the reunification, such as the regional council of Brittany since 2008 and the Loire-Atlantique council since 2001. Some politicians likeJean-Marc Ayrault, the former French prime minister and formermayor ofNantes, favour instead the creation of a "Greater West region", which would encompass Brittany and thePays de la Loire region. Polls show that 58% of the Bretons and 62% of the inhabitants inLoire-Atlantique favour the reunification.[42]
Until the end of the 20th century, Brittany had been characterised by a strong Catholic and conservative influence. However, some areas such as the industrial region aroundSaint-Nazaire andLorient and the surroundings ofTréguier are traditional Socialist and Communist strongholds. Left-wing parties, mainly theSocialist party andthe Greens, have become more powerful after the 1970s and they have formed a majority in theRegional Council of Brittany since 2004. TheLoire-Atlantique andIlle-et-Vilaine councils have also been held by the left since 2004.
The Socialist party has held theCôtes-d'Armor council since 1976, and theFinistère council since 1998. On its side,Morbihan remains a right-wing stronghold. The local parties have a very small audience, except theUnion Démocratique Bretonne which has seats at the Regional Council and in other local assemblies. It advocates more autonomy for the region and its positions are very close to the Socialist parties. It also has a strong ecological orientation. The audience of far-right parties is lower in Brittany than in the rest of France.[43]
Brittany is the largest Frenchpeninsula. It is around 34,030 km2 (13,140 sq mi) and stretches toward the northwest and the Atlantic Ocean. It is bordered to the north by theEnglish Channel, to the south by theBay of Biscay and the waters located between the western coast andUshant Island form theIroise Sea.
The Breton coast is very indented, with many cliffs,rias andcapes. TheGulf of Morbihan is a vastnatural harbour with some forty islands that is almost a closed sea. In total, around 800 islands lie off the mainland; the largest beingBelle Île, in the south. Brittany has over 2,860 km (1,780 mi) of coastline; it represents a third of the total French coastline.
The region is generally hilly because it corresponds to the western end of theArmorican Massif, a very old range that also extends inNormandy and thePays de la Loire region. Because of this continuity, the Breton border with the rest of France is not marked by any strong geographical landmark, apart from the riverCouesnon, which separates Brittany fromNormandy.
The Armorican Massif reaches its maximum elevation outside of Brittany, in neighbouringMayenne, at 417 m, and slopes towards the west before straightening on its western extremity, with theMontagnes Noires and theMonts d'Arrée. The highest hill in Brittany is theRoc'h Ruz in the Monts d'Arrée, at 385 m (1,263 ft). It is closely followed by several neighbouring hills culminating at around 384 m above sea level.[44]
Coastal areas are usually namedArmor orArvor ("by the sea" in Breton), and the inland is calledArgoat ("by the forest"). The best soils were primitively covered by large forests which had been progressively replaced bybocage during theMiddle Ages. The Breton bocage, with its small fields enclosed by thick hedgerows, has almost disappeared since the 1960s to fit the modern agricultural needs and methods, particularly mechanisation.
ThePointe du Raz, one of the westernmost extents of both Brittany and Metropolitan France
The Breton peninsula appeared during theCadomian Orogeny, which formed its northern coastline, betweenGuingamp andFougères. The southern part emerged during theHercynian orogeny. At the same time, an intense volcanic activity left large quantities ofgranite. Between the Cadomian and Hercynian periods, the region was submerged several times and the sea leftfossils andsedimentary rocks, mostlyschist andsandstone. Because of the absence oflimestone, soils in Brittany are usually acid.
During theQuaternary glaciations, Brittany was covered byloess and rivers started to fill the valleys with alluvial deposits. The valleys themselves were a result of a strong tectonic activity between theAfrican and theEurasian Plate. The present Breton landscape did not acquire its final shape before one million years ago. The Breton subsoil is characterised by a huge amount offractures that form a largeaquifer containing several millions square meters of water.[45]
Brittany lies within thenorth temperate zone. It has a changeable,maritime climate, similar toCornwall. Rainfall occurs regularly but sunny, cloudless days are also common. In the summer months, temperatures in the region can reach 30 °C (86 °F), yet the climate remains comfortable, especially when compared to the French regions located south of theLoire. The temperature difference between summer and winter is about 15 degrees, but it varies depending on the proximity of the sea. The weather is generally milder on the seacoast than inland but rainfall occurs with the same intensity on both. TheMonts d'Arrée, despite their low elevation, have much more rainfall than the rest of the region. The south coast, betweenLorient andPornic, enjoys more than 2,000 hours of sunshine per year.[46]
Anocean sunfish exhibiting its characteristic horizontal basking behaviour several miles offPenmarch
Brittany's wildlife is typical of France with several distinctions. On one hand, the region, due to its long coastline, has a rich oceanic fauna, and some birds cannot be seen in other French regions. On the other hand, the species found in the inland are usually common for France, and because Brittany is a peninsula, the number of species is lower in its western extremity than in the eastern part.
Brittany has the same education system as the rest of France. As in other French regions, formal education before the 19th century was the preserve of the elite. Before 1460, Brittany did not have a university, and Breton students had to go toAngers,Poitiers orCaen. TheUniversity of Nantes was founded under the dukeFrancis II, who wanted to affirm the Breton independence from France. All the traditional disciplines were taught here: arts, theology, law and medicine. During the 17th century, it had around 1,500 students. It declined during the 18th century, mostly becauseNantes was flourishing with theAtlantic slave trade and paid no attention to its cultural institutions.
Amayor eventually asked the university to be relocated toRennes, more devoted to culture and science, and the faculties progressively moved there after 1735.[52] The transfer was interrupted by theFrench Revolution, and all the French universities were dissolved in 1793.
Napoleon reorganised the French education system in 1808. He created new universities and invented twosecondary education institutions: thecollèges and thelycées which were opened in numerous towns to educate boys and form a new elite. A newUniversity of Rennes was progressively recreated during the 19th century.
In the meantime, several laws were promoted to open schools, notably for girls. In 1882,Jules Ferry succeeded in passing a law which made primary education in France free, non-clerical (laïque) and mandatory. Thus, free schools were opened in almost every villages of Brittany.
Jules Ferry also promoted education policies establishing French language as the language of the Republic, and mandatory education was a mean to eradicate regional languages and dialects. In Brittany, it was forbidden for the pupils to speakBreton orGallo, and the two were strongly depreciated. Humiliating practices aimed at stamping out the Breton language and culture prevailed in state schools until the late 1960s.[53]
In response, theDiwan schools were founded in 1977 to teach Breton byimmersion. They have taught a few thousand young people from elementary school to high school, and they have gained more fame owing to their high level of results in school exams.[54]
A bilingual approach has also been implemented in some state schools after 1979, and some Catholic schools have done the same after 1990. Besides, Brittany, with the neighbouringPays de la Loire region, remains a stronghold for Catholic private education with around 1,400 schools.[55]
Brittany, apart from some areas such asLorient,Nantes andSaint-Nazaire, has never been heavily industrialised. Today, fishing and agriculture remain important activities. Brittany has more than 40,000 farms, mostly oriented towards cattle, pig and poultry breeding, as well as cereal and vegetable production. The number of farms tends to diminish, but as a result, they are merged into very large estates. Brittany is the first producer in France for vegetables (green beans, onions,artichokes, potatoes, tomatoes, etc.). Cereals are mostly grown for cattle feeding. Wine, especiallymuscadet, is made in a small region south ofNantes. Brittany is the first region in France for fishing. The activity employs around 15,000 people, and more than 2500 firms work in fish and seafood processing.[56][57]
Although relatively new, the Breton industry has been constantly growing since 1980. Food processing (meat, vegetables, etc.) represents a third of the industrial jobs, but other activities are also important for the local economy.Shipbuilding, both commercial and military, is implanted inSaint-Nazaire (Chantiers de l'Atlantique),Lorient andBrest;Airbus has plants inSaint-Nazaire andNantes; andPeugeot has a large factory inRennes. Brittany is the second French region for telecommunication and the fifth for electronics, two activities mainly developed inRennes,Lannion and Brest.
The unemployment rate in Brittany is lower than in other French regions and it is usually around 6 or 7% of the active population.[58] Because of theglobal financial crisis started in 2007, unemployment rose to 8.7% in theRegion Brittany and 8.4% inLoire-Atlantique in late 2012. However, these figures remain under the French national rate (9.9% at the same period).[59][60] Some industries, such as construction, industry, catering or transport, usually have difficulties finding employees.[58]
In 2018,Region Brittany's gross domestic product reached 99 billioneuros. It was the ninth richest region in France and it produced 4% of the national GDP. The BretonGDP per capita was around 29,694 euros in 2018.[61] It was lower than the French result, 30,266 euros, below theEuropean Union one, 30,900 euros. The GDP of theLoire-Atlantiquedépartement is around 26 billion euros, and the GDP of the five historical Breton départements would be at around 108 billion euros.[62]
Tourism is particularly important for the seacoast and Brittany is one of the most visited regions in France.[57] In April 2019,The Guardian's travel section included two Brittany locations in its list of20 of the most beautiful villages in France. The two were Rochefort-en-Terre with "its covered market, 12th-century church, medieval castle, 19th-century chateau, and 16th- and 17th-century mansions" and Locronan, where "East India Company's offices still stand on the village square, as well as 17th-century merchants' dwellings".[63]
Rennes, the most populated city inRegion Brittany and the second in historical Brittany, behind Nantes
In 2017, the population inRegion Brittany was estimated to 3,318,904 andLoire-Atlantique had around 1,394,909 inhabitants, thus historical Brittany's population can be estimated at 4,713,813, the highest in its history.[64] The population inRegion Brittany had grown by 0.9% between 1999 and 2000, and the growth rate reached more than 1% inIlle-et-Vilaine andMorbihan. The region aroundRennes and the south are the more attractive areas, whereas the population is declining in the centre and in the westernmost parts. While most of themetropolitan areas are growing, the cities themselves tend to stagnate or regress, such as forBrest,Lorient,Saint-Brieuc andSaint-Malo. In 2017,Ille-et-Vilaine had 1,060,199 inhabitants, it was followed byFinistère 909,028 inhabitants,Morbihan 750,863 inhabitants, andCôtes-d'Armor, with 598,814 inhabitants.[65]
The largest cities inRegion Brittany as of 2017 wereRennes, with 216,815 inhabitants,Brest 140,064,Quimper 62,985,Lorient 57,149,Vannes 53,352,Saint-Malo 46,097 andSaint-Brieuc 44,372. All the othercommunes had under 25,000 inhabitants.[65] Brittany is also characterised by a great number of small towns, such asVitré,Concarneau,Morlaix orAuray.Loire-Atlantique has two major cities,Nantes, with 309,346 inhabitants and an urban area encompassing 972,828, andSaint-Nazaire, with 69,993 inhabitants.[65] Loire-Atlantique's population is more rapidly growing thanRegion Brittany's and it is the 12th most populated Frenchdépartement.[66] Nevertheless, since the 1990s, Rennes has consistently ranked as one of France's fastest growing metropolitan areas.
In 1851, Brittany had around 2.7 million inhabitants and the demographic growth stayed low until the second half of the 20th century, mainly because of an important emigration. Brittany had 3.2 million inhabitants in 1962 and the growth was mainly due toLoire-Atlantique and the steady growth ofNantes. Without the Loire-Atlantique's figures, the Breton population only numbered 2.4 million in 1962, nearly unchanged from its population of 2.3 million in 1851.[67][68] After the 1960s, the whole region has had a strong demographic growth because of the decline of the traditional emigration to richer French regions. Instead, Brittany has become attractive, particularly for families, young retired persons and active people over 35 years old.[69]
Breton women wearing theBigouden distinctive headdress, one of the symbols of Breton identity
Breton political parties do not have wide support and their electoral success is small. However, Bretons have a strong cultural identity. According to a poll made in 2008, 50% of the inhabitants of theregion of Brittany considered themselves as much Breton as French, 22.5% felt more Breton than French, and 15.4% more French than Breton. A minority, 1.5%, considered themselves Breton but not French, while 9.3% did not consider themselves to be Breton at all.[70]
51.9% of the poll respondents agreed that Brittany should have more political power, and 31.1% thought that it should stay the same. Only 4.6% favoured independence, and 9.4% were undecided.[70]
A 2012 poll taken in the five departments of historical Brittany showed that 48% of the respondents considered themselves belonging first to France, 37% to Brittany, and 10% to Europe. It also showed that Breton identity is stronger among people younger than 35. 53% of them considering themselves to belong first to Brittany. 50% of the older respondents considered themselves belonging first to France. Primary Breton identity is at its lowest among the respondents over 65: 58% consider themselves to belong first to France, with European identify secondary. 21% of the respondents over 65 considering themselves to be European first. Breton self-identification is stronger among people who voteleft-wing. It is stronger among employees than employers.[71]
Lower Brittany (in colours), where the Breton language is traditionally spoken andUpper Brittany (in shades of grey), where the Gallo language is traditionally spoken. The changing shades indicate the advance of Gallo and French, and retreat of Breton from 900 AD.
French, the soleofficial language of the French Republic, is spoken today by the vast majority in Brittany, for whom it is usually theirmother tongue. However, French was not widely known in the region before the 19th century, and tworegional languages exist in Brittany:Breton andGallo. They are separated by alanguage border that has constantly moved back since the Middle Ages.
Government policies in the 19th and 20th centuries made education compulsory and, at the same time, forbade the use of Breton in schools to push non-French speakers into adopting the French language. Nevertheless, until the 1960s Breton was spoken or understood by many of the inhabitants of western Brittany. During the 1970s, Breton schools were opened and the local authorities started to promote the language, which was on the brink of extinction because parents had stopped teaching it to their children.
Having declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to about 200,000 in the first decade of the 21st century, of whom 61% are more than 60 years old, Breton is classified as "severely endangered" by the UNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger. However, the number of children attending bilingual classes has risen 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709.[72][73]
TheBreton language has several dialects which have no precise limits but rather form acontinuum. Most of them are very similar to each other, with only some phonetic and lexical differences. The three main dialects spoken in the western end of Brittany are:
Signs in Gallo are very rare and the writing systems they use are unknown by most of the speakers.
Gallo is spoken on the eastern half of Brittany. It is not itself a Celtic language. Like French, it is also descended from Latin (and is classified in theLangues d'oïl branch), but has some Celtic influences, particularly in its vocabulary, whereas French has influences from both Celtic (Gaulish) andFrankish (theGermanic language which arrived after Latin in much of the rest of France).
Unlike Breton, Gallo does not have a long promotion history and it is still often perceived as a poor rural dialect. Moreover, because of its linguistic relationship with Gallo, French imposed itself more easily as the main language inUpper Brittany than in Breton speaking areas. Gallo was simply perceived as an incorrect way of speaking French rather than a separate language. Gallo transmission from parents to children is extremely low and efforts to standardise and publish books in Gallo did not reverse the decline of the language and its lack ofprestige.[75]
Gallo is also threatened by the Bretonlanguage revival, because Breton is gaining ground in territories that were not previously part of the main Breton-speaking area, and most of all because Breton appears as the national language of Brittany, thus leaving no place for Gallo.[75]
Gallo had never been written before the 20th century, and several writing systems were created. They are however rarely known by the population and signs in Gallo are often unreadable, even for fluent speakers. InLoire-Atlantique, where Gallo is not promoted at all by the local authorities, many people do not even know the word "Gallo" and have no idea that it has writing systems and publications.[75]
The Gallo community is estimated at between 28,300[76] and 200,000[75] speakers. The language is taught on a non-compulsory basis in some schools, high-schools and universities, particularly inIlle-et-Vilaine.[75]
Bretons are mainlyCatholic and the Christianisation occurred during theRoman Gaul andFrank era. During the Briton emigration to Brittany, several Christian missionaries, mostly Welsh, came in the region and founded dioceses. They are known as the "Seven founder saints":
Other notable early missionaries areGildas and the Irish saintColumbanus. Bretons recognize more than 300 local "saints", though only a few are officially accepted by the Catholic Church. Since the 19th century at least, Brittany has been known as one of the most devoutly Catholic regions in France, together with the neighbouringPays de la Loire region. The proportion of students attending Catholic private schools is the highest in France. Thepatron saint of Brittany isSaint Anne, the Virgin's mother, butIvo of Kermartin, a 13th-century priest, called Saint-Yves in French and Sant-Erwan in Breton, can also be considered as a patron saint. His feast, 19 May, is Brittany's national day.
Many distinctive traditions and customs have also been preserved in Brittany. Among them, the "Pardons" are one of the most traditional demonstrations of popular Catholicism. Thesepenitential ceremonies occur in some villages inLower Brittany on thefeast day of the parish's saint. The penitents form a procession and they walk together to ashrine, a church or any sacred place. Some Pardons are reputed for their length, and they all finish by large meals and popular feasts.
There is a very oldpilgrimage called theTro Breizh (tour of Brittany), where the pilgrims walk around Brittany from the grave of one of the seven founder saints to another. Historically, the pilgrimage was made in one trip (a total distance of around 600 km) for all seven saints. Nowadays, however, pilgrims complete the circuit over the course of several years. In 2002, the Tro Breizh included a special pilgrimage toWales, symbolically making the reverse journey of the Welshmen Sant Paol, Sant Brieg, and Sant Samzun.[77]
The most powerful folk figure is theAnkou or the "Reaper of Death". Sometimes a skeleton wrapped in a shroud with the Breton flat hat, sometimes described as a real human being (the last dead of the year, devoted to bring the dead to Death), he makes his journeys by night carrying an upturned scythe which he throws before him to reap his harvest. Sometimes he is on foot but mostly he travels with a cart, theKarrig an Ankou, drawn by two oxen and a lean horse. Two servants dressed in the same shroud and hat as the Ankou pile the dead into the cart, and to hear it creaking at night means you have little time left to live.[78]
As official religious statistics are forbidden in France, there are no official figures about religious practices in Brittany. However, successive polls show that the region has grown morenonreligious over time. Catholicism started to decline after theSecond World War, during the urbanisation of Brittany. A poll conducted in 2006 showed thatMorbihan was the onlydépartement to have a strong Catholic population, around 70% of its inhabitants belonging to that religion.Loire-Atlantique andCôtes-d'Armor were among the least Catholic Frenchdépartements, with only 50% of the population practicing Catholics, whileIlle-et-Vilaine andFinistère were at around 65%. Other religions are almost non-existent, apart fromIslam which is practiced by between 1 and 3% of the inhabitants inIlle-et-Vilaine andLoire-Atlantique.[79]
TheFrench Renaissance occurred when Brittany lost its independence. The Renaissance architecture is almost absent in the region, except inUpper Brittany, close to the border with France. Major sites include theChâteau des ducs de Bretagne, the last permanent residence of the dukes, which displays the transition from late Gothic to Renaissance style. TheChâteau de Châteaubriant, a former fortress, was transformed into a vast palace in the Italian style.
InLower Brittany, the medieval style never totally disappeared. However, local innovations permitted some changes and the birth of a particular style. Its most distinctive feature is theparish close, which displays an elaborately decorated church surrounded by an entirely walled churchyard. Many villages still have their closes, they date from the 16th and 17th centuries and sometimes include an elaborately carvedcalvary sculpture.
During the 17th and the 18th centuries, the mainseaports and towns obtained a typical French look, withbaroque andneoclassical buildings.Nantes, which was at the time the biggest French harbour, received a theatre, large avenues and quays, andRennes was redesigned after a fire in 1720. At the same period, the wealthyship-owners fromSaint-Malo built many mansions called "Malouinières" around their town. Along the coast,Vauban and other French architects designed several citadels, such as inLe Palais andPort-Louis. In rural areas, Breton houses remained simple, with a single floor and alonghouse pattern. They were built with local materials: mostly granite inLower Brittany andschist inUpper Brittany.Slates andreeds were usually used for roofing. During the 19th century, the Breton architecture was mainly characterised by theGothic Revival andEclecticism.Clisson, the southernmost Breton town, was rebuilt in an ItalianRomantic style around 1820. The Bretonlighthouses were mostly built during the 19th century. The most famous areAr Men,Phare d'Eckmühl,La Vieille andLa Jument. The lighthouse on theÎle Vierge is, with 77 meters, the highest in Europe.
Until the 19th century,Catholicism had been the main inspiration for Breton artists. The region has a great number ofbaroqueretables, made between the 17th and the 19th century. Breton sculptors were also famous for their ship models that served asex-votos and for their richly decorated furniture, which features naïve Breton characters and traditional patterns. Thebox-bed is the most famous Breton piece of furniture. The Breton style had a strong revival between 1900 and theSecond World War and it was used by theSeiz Breur movement. The Seiz Breur artists also tried to invent a modern Breton art by rejecting French standards and mixing traditional techniques with new materials. The leading artists of that period were the designerRené-Yves Creston, the illustratorsJeanne Malivel andXavier Haas, and the sculptorsRaffig Tullou,Francis Renaud,Georges Robin,Joseph Savina,Jules-Charles Le Bozec andJean Fréour.
Brittany is also known for itsneedlework, which can be seen on its numerous headdress models, and for itsfaience production, which started at the beginning of the 18th century.Quimper faience is known worldwide for its bowls and plates painted by hand, and other towns, such asPornic, also maintain a similar tradition. The potteries usually feature naïve Breton characters in traditional clothing and daily scenes. The designs have a strong traditional Breton influence, butOrientalism andArt Deco have also been used.
Since the early 1970s, Brittany has experienced a tremendous revival of its folk music. Numerous festivals were created, along with smallerfest-noz (popular feasts). Thebagadoù, bands composed ofbagpipes,bombards and drums (includingsnare), are also a modern creation, inspired by the Scottishpipe bands. TheLann-Bihoué bagad, one of the most well-known, belongs to theFrench Navy. It is the only one that does not take part to the annual bagadoù competitions.Celtic harp is also common, as are vocals and dances. TheKan ha diskan is the most common type of singing. The performers sing calls and responses while dancing. Breton dances usually imply circles, chains or couples and they are different in every region. The oldest dances seem to be thepassepied and thegavotte, and the newest ones derive from thequadrille andFrench Renaissance dances.
In 2022,Alvan andAhez have been selected to represent France in theEurovision Song Contest 2022. Their song,Fulenn, is sung entirely in Breton and is about the legend of Katel Kollet, a lady who dances with the devil.
Breton literature before the 19th century was mostly oral. The oral tradition entertained by medieval poets died out during the 15th century and books inBreton were very rare before 1850. At that time, local writers started to collect and publish local tales and legends and wrote original works. Published between 1925 and theSecond World War, the literary journalGwalarn favoured a modern Breton literature and helped translating widely known novels into Breton. After the war, the journalAl Liamm pursued that mission. Among the authors writing in Breton areAuguste Brizeux, a Romantic poet, theneo-Druidic bardErwan Berthou,Théodore Hersart de La Villemarqué, who collected the local legends aboutKing Arthur,Roparz Hemon, founder ofGwalarn,Pêr-Jakez Helias,Glenmor,Pêr Denez andMeavenn.
The Museum of Brittany, located inRennes, was founded in 1856. Its collections are mainly dedicated to the history of the region. Museums dedicated toPrehistory and localmegaliths are located inCarnac andPenmarch, while several towns likeVannes andNantes have a museum presenting their own history.
The Breton culture is highlighted during theFête de la Bretagne, which occurs in many places around Saint-Yves's day (19 May), and during the Festival de Cornouaille inQuimper. Several towns also organisehistorical re-enactments and events celebrating local traditions, such as the Filets Bleus inConcarneau which celebrates fishing.
Rugby Union is less popular in the North than in thesouth of France, butRugby Club Vannes are one of few professional teams in northern France. They currently play in the top tier of French Rugby,Top 14.
Gouren, a style offolk wrestling, is the most popular Breton sport. TheBoule bretonne is related topétanque. ThePalets, common inUpper Brittany and in other French regions, is also related to pétanque, but players use iron disks instead of balls and they have to throw them on a wooden board.
Gaelic football is also a growing sport in the region,[81] with club teams and a 'county'GAA team representing Brittany against other European 'counties' such as Galicia.
AlthoughMuscadet and Gros Plant white wines are produced south of theLoire, the traditional drink of Brittany iscider. Brittany is the second-largest cider-producing region in France.[82] Breton cider is traditionally served in a bowl or a cup. Brittany also has a long beer-brewing tradition, tracing its roots back to the 17th century. Young artisanal brewers are keeping a variety of beer types alive,[83] such asCoreff de Morlaix,Tri Martolod andBritt. Stronger alcohols include thechouchen, a sort ofmead made with wild honey, and an appleeau de vie calledlambig.
Crêpes andgalettes are the two most well-known Breton dishes. The crêpes,[84] made and served with butter, are eaten for dessert and the galettes are usually salty and made withbuckwheat. They traditionally replaced bread as basic food and they can be served with cheese, sausages, bacon, mushrooms or eggs. They can be accompanied by Bretonbuttermilk calledlait ribot. Brittany also has a dish similar to thepot-au-feu known as thekig ha farz, which consists of stewed pork or beef withbuckwheat dumplings.[This paragraph needs citation(s)]
Surrounded by the sea, Brittany offers a wide range of fresh seafood and fish, especiallymussels andoysters. Among the seafood specialities is a fish stew calledcotriade. Thebeurre blanc sauce, invented inSaint-Julien-de-Concelles, close toNantes, is often served with fish. Brittany is also known for its salt, mainly harvested aroundGuérande and used in butter and milk caramels. The region is notable for its biscuit factories, many towns having their own:Quimper,Lorient,Pont-Aven,Saint-Brieuc, BN andLU inNantes, La Trinitaine inLa Trinité-sur-Mer, and Galettes Saint-Michel inSaint-Michel-Chef-Chef. They usually make their biscuits with salted butter and sell them in iron boxes. Famous Bretonpastries include thekouign amann ("butter cake" in Breton) made with bread dough and high quantities of butter and sugar, and thefar, a sort of sweetYorkshire pudding usually made with dried plums.[This paragraph needs citation(s)]
An old road sign on the Route Nationale 786 inTréveneuc
Until the 1970s, the Breton road network was poor because maritime and rail transport prevailed. The French presidentCharles de Gaulle implemented a major road construction plan in the 1970 and Brittany received over 10 billionfrancs of investments during 25 years.[85] More than 10,000 km ofmotorways were built, permitting Breton road transport to multiply by four. The Breton motorways are nottoll roads, contrarily to the usual French highways.[86][87]
Cycling has always been one of the main sports of Brittany, but leisure cycling and the infrastructure to support it have been growing extremely rapidly. An extensive network of cycle paths and recommended cycle routes has opened up all over the region. Some of these are routes using mainly smaller roads and both signposted and maintained by communes individually, but many are based on dedicated cycle paths often formed by converting disused railway tracks. These help form routes such as 'Vélodyssée' from Roscoff to Nantes and several major routes under the 'V' label (following signs V1, V2 etc.).[88] The old tow-path of the Nantes-Brest canal is now open to cyclists along its entire 385 km length though in places (unlike rail-based cycle paths) it is very meandering and leaving the path will both shorten the distance and provide variety.[89]
Though the marked cyclepaths such as the Nantes-Brest canal offer the opportunity for safe, easy, traffic free cycling, the real 'richness' of Brittany is its incredible network of country lanes. Those the terrain can be described as 'rolling' the gradients are generally moderate (rarely over 5% – usually far less) and unlike the canal paths they do link small villages where cyclists can find somewhere to refresh themselves. The increase in cycling holiday-makers has given new life to the network of small campsites and hotels/chambre d'hotes especially inland where the economy struggled in the past.[90] As a general rule cyclists are very well respected in the region and many larger towns have cycle-lanes – however traffic is 'cycle-friendly' even in their absence.
The modernflag of Brittany was designed in 1923. It is calledGwenn ha Du ("white and black" inBreton) and it features elevenermine spots (their number may vary) and nine stripes, the black ones represent the Breton speaking historical dioceses, and the white ones symbolise thegallo speaking dioceses. The flag was created to replace the traditional ermine plain standard, considered too aristocratic and royalist. It was inspired by theAmerican flag and the BritishRed Ensign.[91] Since the 1920s, the flag has become very popular and it is flown from a large number of institutions. Apart from the ermine flag, Breton historic banners include theKroaz Du, a white flag with a black cross, the perfect negative of theCornish flag.
The ermine was thebadge of several dukes of Brittany.
The coat of arms of Brittany,ermine plain, was adopted byJohn III in 1316. Ermine had been used in Brittany long before, and there is no clue to its origin. It was probably chosen by the dukes because of its similarity with the Frenchfleur-de-lis. Theermine, or stoat, as an animal became thebadge ofJohn IV at the end of the 14th century. It appeared later on numerous locations, including churches and castles. According to popular traditions,Anne of Brittany was hunting with her court when she saw a white ermine who preferred to die than to cross a dirty marsh. This episode would have inspired the duchess' motto :"Potius mori quam foedari" ("rather death than dishonour").[92] The motto has later been reused by Breton regiments, localWorld War II Resistants and cultural movements.
The Breton anthem, although not official, isBro Gozh ma Zadoù – ("Old Land of My Fathers"). It re-employs both theWelsh anthem's music and that of "Bro Goth agan Tasow" (the national anthem of Cornwall; its lyrics were written at the end of the 19th century).
Colloquial Breton emblems include the Celtictriskelion, themenhirs anddolmens, local dishes such as thegalettes, theBigouden headdress and the traditional black round hat, the fisherman and his yellow raincoat, etc.BZH is a common abbreviation for "Breizh" ("Brittany" in Breton) and people often put BZH stickers on their car-plates, although it is forbidden under French laws.[93].bzh is an approved Internettop level domain for theBreton culture and languages.[94][95]
^Presumably this soldier was in the employ ofGratian.
^The Visigoths' version of events was that they had saved the Roman empire from a British invasion.
^Brittany was proverbially wealthy throughout much of its history: it prospered from trade before and during Roman rule, mid-ninth century legal documents reveal peasant landowners suing lords for trespass. TheHouse of Penthièvre was wealthy, Breton dowries raised impoverished nobles such asJean II de Brosse to riches, and Duchess Anne's fortune contributed to theFrench Renaissance, to palaces such asFontainebleau and to theChâteaux of the Loire Valley
^Nathalie Molines and Jean-Laurent Monnier (1993).Le " Colombanien ": un faciès régional du Paléolithique inférieur sur le littoral armoricano-atlantique. Vol. 90. Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française. p. 284.
^Leon Fleuriot's primarily linguistic researches in Les Origines de la Bretagne, emphasizes instead the broader influx of Britons into Roman Gaul that preceded the fifth-century collapse of Roman power.
^Procopius, in History of the Wars, viii, 20, 6–14.
After the Romans withdrew, Celts from Britain moved into the area to seek refuge from the Anglo-Saxon invaders of the 5th and 6th centuries. It is from this event that Brittany derives its name.
^Léon Fleuriot,Les origines de la Bretagne: l'émigration, Paris, Payot, 1980.
^Christian Y. M. Kerboul (1997).Les Royaumes brittoniques au très haut Moyen Âge. Éditions du Pontig/Coop Breizh. pp. 80–143.ISBN2-9510310-3-3.
^Joël Cornette (2005).Histoire de la Bretagne et des Bretons. Seuil.ISBN2-02-054890-9.
^Smith, Julia M. H.Province and Empire: Brittany and the Carolingians, Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 80–83.
^"20 of the most beautiful villages in France".Guardian. 13 April 2019. Retrieved13 April 2019.From a fairytale fortress in the Loire to a clifftop stronghold in Provence, these charming, historic villages make perfect bases for exploring rural France
^Fañch Broudic, 2009.Parler Breton au XXIe siècle – Le nouveau sondage de TMO-Régions. (including data from 2007: 172,000 speakers in Lower Brittany; slightly under 200,000 in whole Brittany; 206,000 including students in bilingual education)
^Gwenc'hlan Le Scouëzec,Guide de la Bretagne, page 40, Coop Breizh, Spézet, 1987; andLe Journal de la Bretagne des origines à nos jours, page 106, Larousse, Paris, 2001
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