| First flight | 27 June 1969 (Black Arrow) |
|---|---|
| Successes | 2 |
| Failures | 2 |
TheBritish space programme is the British government's work to develop Britishspace capabilities. The objectives of the current civil programme are to "win sustainable economic growth, secure new scientific knowledge and provide benefits to all citizens."[1]
The first official British space programme began in 1952. In 1959, the first satellite programme was started, with theAriel series of British satellites, built in the United States and the UK and launched using American rockets. The first British satellite,Ariel 1, was launched in 1962. The British space programme has always emphasized uncrewedspace research and commercial initiatives. It has never been government policy to create a Britishastronaut corps.[2][3] The British government did not provide funding for theInternational Space Station until 2011.[4]
During the 1960s and 1970s, a number of efforts were made to develop a British satellite launch capability. A British rocket namedBlack Arrow placed a single British satellite,Prospero, into orbit from a launch site in Australia in 1971. Prospero remains the only British satellite to be put into orbit using a British vehicle.
TheBritish National Space Centre was established in 1985 to coordinate British government agencies and other interested bodies in the promotion of British participation in the international market for satellite launches, satellite construction and other space endeavours. In 2010, many of the various separate sources of space-related funding were combined and allocated to the centre's replacement, theUK Space Agency. Among other projects, the agency funded asingle-stage-to-orbitspaceplane concept calledSkylon, which did not progress beyond testing of engine components.
Scientific interest in space travel existed in the United Kingdom prior toWorld War II, particularly amongst members of theBritish Interplanetary Society (founded in 1933) whose members included SirArthur C. Clarke, author and conceiver of thegeostationary telecommunications satellite, who joined the BIS before World War II.
As with the other post-war space-faring nations, the British government's initial interest in space was primarily military. Early programmes reflected this interest. As with other nations, much of the rocketry knowledge was obtained from captured German scientists who were persuaded to work for the British. The British performed the earliest post-war tests of capturedV-2 rockets inOperation Backfire, less than six months after the end of the war in Europe. In 1946 a proposal was made by Ralph A. Smith to fund a British crewed suborbital launch in a modified V-2 calledMegaroc; this was, however, rejected by the government.[5]
From 1957, British space astronomy usedSkylark suborbitalsounding rockets, launched fromWoomera, Australia,[6] which at first reached heights of 200 km (124 mi). Development of air-to-surface missiles such asBlue Steel contributed to progress towards launches of larger orbit-capable rockets.
TheAriel programme developed six satellites between 1962 and 1979, all of which were launched byNASA.
In 1971, the last Black Arrow (R3) launchedProspero X-3, the only British satellite to be launched using a British rocket, from Australia. Ground contact with Prospero ended in 1996.[7]
Skynet is a purely military programme, operating a set ofcommunications satellites on behalf of theMinistry of Defence (MoD), to provide communication services to the three branches of theBritish Armed Forces and toNATO and allied governments. The first satellite was launched in 1969, becoming the first military satellite ingeostationary orbit, and the most recent in 2012. As of 2020, seven Skynet satellites are operating and providing coverage of almost the whole globe.
Skynet is the most expensive British space project, although as a military initiative it is not part of the civil space programme. The MoD is currently specifying the Skynet 6 architecture to replace the Skynet 5 model satellites, which is expected to cost about £6 billion.[8][9]
Zircon was thecodename for a Britishsignals intelligencesatellite, intended to be launched in 1988, but cancelled in 1987.
During theCold War, the UK's Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) relied heavily on America'sNational Security Agency (NSA) for communications interception from space. GCHQ therefore decided to produce a British-designed-and-built signals intelligence satellite, to be named Zircon, a code-name derived fromzirconium silicate, a diamond substitute. Zircon's function was to intercept radio and other signals from theUSSR, Europe and other areas. The satellite was to be built byMarconi Space and Defence Systems atPortsmouth Airport, where a high-security building had been built.
It was to be launched on aNASASpace Shuttle under the guise ofSkynet IV. Launch on the Shuttle would have entitled a British National to fly as apayload specialist, and a group of military pilots were presented to the press as candidates for 'Britain's first man in space'. Zircon was cancelled by ChancellorNigel Lawson on cost grounds in 1987. The subsequent scandal about the true nature of the project became known as theZircon affair.
On 30 November 2018, it was announced that theUnited Kingdom Global Navigation Satellite System (UKGNSS) would not be affiliated with the European Space Agency'sGalileo satellite system afterBritain completed its withdrawal from the European Union. Instead, it was initially planned that theUK Space Agency would operate an independent satellite system.[10] However, on 25 September 2020,The Daily Telegraph reported that the United Kingdom Global Navigation Satellite System project had been scrapped. The project, deemed unnecessary and too expensive, would be replaced with a new project exploring alternative ways to provide satellite navigation services.[11]
In July 2020, the United Kingdom government and India'sBharti Enterprises jointly purchased the bankruptOneWeb satellite company, with the UK paying £400 million (US$500 million) for a 45% stake and a golden share to give it control over future ownership. The UK government was considering whether thelow Earth orbitOneWeb satellite constellation could in future provide a form of UKGNSS service in addition to its primary purpose of fast satellite broadband,[12] and if it could be incorporated into the militarySkynet 6 communications architecture. OneWeb satellites are manufactured by a joint venture includingAirbus Defence and Space, who operate Skynet.[13][14]
OneWeb commenced launches of theOneWeb satellite constellation, a network of more than 650low Earth orbitsatellites, in February 2019,[15] and by March 2020, had launched 74 of the planned 648 satellites in the initial constellation. OneWeb's goal has been to provideinternet services to "everyone, everywhere", delivering internet connections to rural and remote places as well as to a range of markets. The post-bankruptcy company leadership launched an additional 36 OneWeb satellites on 18 December 2020.[16] OneWeb satellites are listed in the UK Registry of Outer Space Objects.[17]
Beginning in 1950, the UK developed and launched severalspace rockets, as well as developingspace planes. These included theBlack Knight andBlue Streak rockets. During this period, the launcher programmes were administered in succession by theMinistry of Supply, theMinistry of Aviation, theMinistry of Technology and theDepartment of Trade and Industry. Rockets were tested on theIsle of Wight,RAF Spadeadam, andWoomera in South Australia.
A majorsatellite launch vehicle was proposed in 1957 based on Blue Streak and Black Knight technology. This was namedBlack Prince, but the project was cancelled in 1960 due to lack of funding. Blue Streak rockets continued to be launched as the first stage of the EuropeanEuropa carrier rocket until Europa's cancellation in 1972. The smallerBlack Arrow launcher was developed from Black Knight and was first launched in 1969 from Woomera. The program was soon cancelled. In 1971, the last Black Arrow (R3) launchedProspero X-3, becoming the first (and last) satellite to be placed in orbit by a British launch vehicle.
By 1972, British government funding of both Blue Streak and Black Arrow had ceased, and no further government-backed British space rockets were developed. Other space agencies, notablyNASA, were used for subsequent launches of British satellites. Communication with the Prospero X-3 was terminated in 1996.
Falstaff, a British hypersonic test rocket, was launched from Woomera between 1969 and 1979.
In 1960 theBritish Space Development Company, a consortium of thirteen large industrial companies, was set up byRobert Renwick, 1st Baron Renwick to plan the world's first commercial communication satellite company, Renwick becoming the executive director. With Blue Streak, Britain had the technology to make it possible, but the idea was rejected by the British government on the grounds that such a system could not be envisaged in the next 20 years (1961–1981). The United States would eventually set upCOMSAT in 1963, resulting inIntelsat, a large fleet of commercial satellites. The first of Intelsat's fleet,Intelsat I, was launched in April 1965.[18]
The official national space programme was revived in 1982 when the British government funded theHOTOL project, an ambitious attempt at a re-usable space plane using air-breathing rocket engines designed byAlan Bond. Work was begun byBritish Aerospace. However, having classified the engine design as 'top secret' the government then ended funding for the project, terminating it.
In 1985, theBritish National Space Centre (BNSC) was formed to coordinate British space activities.[19] The BNSC was a significant contributor to the general budget of theEuropean Space Agency, and in 2005 paid 17.7% of the costs of the mandatory programmes, making it the second largest contributor.[20] Through BNSC, the UK also took part in ESA's optional programmes such asAurora, the robotic exploration initiative.
The UK decided not to contribute funds for theInternational Space Station, on the basis that it did not represent value for money.[21] The British government did not take part in any crewed space endeavours during this period.
The United Kingdom continued to contribute scientific elements to satellite launches and space projects. The British probeBeagle 2, sent as part of the ESA's 2003Mars Express mission to study the planetMars, was lost when it failed to respond. The probe was found in 2015[22] by NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and it has been concluded while it did land successfully, one of the solar arrays failed to deploy, blocking the communication antenna.
On 1 April 2010, thegovernment established theUK Space Agency, an agency responsible for the British space programme. It replaced theBritish National Space Centre and now has responsibility for government policy and key budgets for space, as well as representing the UK in all negotiations on space matters.
As of 2015, the UK Space Agency provided 9.9% of the European Space Agency budget.[23]
The British government partnered with theESA in 2010 to promote asingle-stage to orbitspaceplane concept calledSkylon.[24] This design was developed byReaction Engines Limited,[25][26] a company founded byAlan Bond afterHOTOL was cancelled. The Skylon spaceplane was positively received by the British government, and theBritish Interplanetary Society.[27] Successful tests of the engine pre-cooler andSABRE engine design were carried out in 2012, although full funding for development of the spacecraft itself had not been confirmed. Reaction Engines filed for bankruptcy in 2024.[28]
The British government proposed reform to theOuter Space Act 1986 in several areas, including the liabilities that cover space operations, in order to enable Britishcompanies' space endeavours to better compete with international competitors. There was also a proposal of a £10 million boost in capital investment, to be matched by industry.[29]
In July 2014, the government announced that it would build aBritish commercial spaceport. It planned to select a site, build the facilities, and have thespaceport in operation by 2018.[30] Six sites were shortlisted, but the competition was ended in May 2016 with no selection made.[31] However, in July 2018 UKSA announced that the UK government would back the development of a spaceport atA' Mhòine, in Sutherland, Scotland.[32] Launch operations atSutherland spaceport would be developed byLockheed Martin with financial support from the UK government andHighlands and Islands Enterprise, originally with the aim of commencing operations in 2020, later delayed to 2022.
As of 2020, UKSA is supporting the development of three space launch sites in the UK. The proposed sites for spaceports, and the companies associated with them, are as follows:
In June 2017, the government introduced a bill leading to theSpace Industry Act 2018 which created a regulatory framework for the expansion of commercial space activities. This covered the development of British spaceports, for both orbital and sub-orbital activities, and launches and other activities overseas by UK entities.[39][40]
The first Briton in space, cosmonaut-researcherHelen Sharman, was funded by a private consortium without British government assistance whilst the government of theSoviet Union made up for the shortfall in the private funding. Interest in space continues in the UK's private sector, including satellite design and manufacture, developing designs for space planes and catering to the new market inspace tourism.
Project Juno was a privately funded campaign, which selectedHelen Sharman to be the first Briton in space. A private consortium was formed to raise money to pay the USSR for a seat on aSoyuz mission to theMirspace station. The USSR had recently flownToyohiro Akiyama, a Japanesejournalist, by a similar arrangement.
A call for applicants was publicised in the UK resulting in the selection of four astronauts: Helen Sharman, Major Timothy Mace, Clive Smith and Surgeon Lieutenant Commander Gordon Brooks. Sharman was eventually chosen for the first of what was hoped to be a number of flights with Major Timothy Mace as her backup. The cost of the flight was to be funded by various innovative schemes, including sponsoring by private British companies and a lottery system. Corporate sponsors includedBritish Aerospace,Memorex, andInterflora, and television rights were sold toITV.
Ultimately the Juno consortium failed to raise the entire sum and the USSR considered canceling the mission. It is believed thatMikhail Gorbachev directed the mission to proceed at Soviet cost.
Sharman was launched aboardSoyuz TM-12 on 18 May 1991, and returned aboardSoyuz TM-11 on 26 May 1991.
Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd (SSTL) is a large spin-off company of theUniversity of Surrey, now fully owned byAirbus Defence & Space, that builds and operatessmall satellites. SSTL works with the UK Space Agency and takes on a number of tasks for the UKSA that would be done in-house by a traditional large government space agency.
Virgin Galactic, a US company within the British-basedVirgin Group owned by SirRichard Branson, is taking reservations for suborbital space flights from the general public. Its operations will useSpaceShipTwo space planes designed byScaled Composites, which has previously developed the Ansari X-Prize winningSpaceShipOne.
A private aerospace company owned byJeff Bezos has multiple plans for space. On J4 June 2022, on its fifth flight,Blue Origin NS-21,Hamish Harding became the eighth British astronaut (reaching an apogee of 107 km) to reach space.[41] On 4 August 2022, on its sixth flight,Blue Origin NS-22,Vanessa O'Brien became the ninth British astronaut and second female British astronaut (reaching an apogee of 107 km) to reach space, while conducting an overview study on the human brain.[42]
Communication and tracking of rockets and satellites in orbit is achieved using stations such asJodrell Bank. During theSpace Race,Jodrell Bank and other stations were used to track several satellites and probes includingSputnik andPioneer 5.[43]
As well as providing tracking facilities for other nations, scientists from the United Kingdom have participated in other nation's space programmes, notably contributing to the development ofNASA's early space programmes,[44] and co-operation with Australian launches.[45]
TheRoyal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough, inventedcarbon fibre composite material. TheSaunders-Roe SR.53 Rocket/jet plane in 1957 used the newly invented silver peroxide catalyst rocket engine.
The concept of thecommunications satellite was byArthur C. Clarke.
Because the British government has never developed a crewed spaceflight programme and initially did not contribute funding to the crewed space flight part of ESA's activities, the first six Britishastronauts launched with either the American or Soviet/Russian space programmes. Despite this, on 9 October 2008, British Science and Innovation MinisterLord Drayson spoke favourably of the idea of a British astronaut.[46]Army Air Corps test pilotTim Peake became a member of theEuropean Astronaut Corps in 2009,[47] and then in 2015 the first astronaut funded by the British government when he reached theInternational Space Station aboard a Soyuz rocket launched from Baikonur in Kazakhstan.[48][49]
To date, seven UK-born British citizens[50][51][52] and two non-UK-born British citizen have flown in space:[53][50][54][55]
| Name | Birthplace | Missions | First launch date | Nationality/ies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Helen Sharman | Grenoside,Sheffield, South Yorkshire | Soyuz TM-12/11 | 18 May 1991 |  |
| First British astronaut (and in particular, the first British cosmonaut) as well as the first woman to visit theMir space station. Funded partially by private British citizens asProject Juno and by theSoviet Union. | ||||
| Michael Foale | Louth, Lincolnshire | STS-45 (Atlantis) STS-56 (Discovery) STS-63 (Discovery) STS-84/86 (Atlantis) STS-103 (Discovery) Soyuz TMA-3 | 24 March 1992 | / |
| NASA astronaut. Born and grew up in the UK with dual UK/US citizenship, his mother being American. First British spacewalker. First Briton to both Mir andInternational Space Station. | ||||
| Mark Shuttleworth | Welkom, Orange Free State, South Africa | Soyuz TM-34/33 | 27 April 2002 | / |
| Self-fundedspace tourist to the International Space Station. Born a South African, he also holds British citizenship. | ||||
| Piers Sellers | Crowborough, Sussex | STS-112 (Atlantis) STS-121 (Discovery) STS-132 (Atlantis) | 7 October 2002 | / |
| NASA astronaut. Born and grew up in the UK, US citizen after 1991. | ||||
| Nicholas Patrick | Saltburn-by-the-Sea, North Yorkshire | STS-116 (Discovery) STS-130 (Endeavour) | 9 December 2006 | / |
| NASA astronaut. Born and grew up in the UK, US citizen since 1994. | ||||
| Richard Garriott | Cambridge, Cambridgeshire | Soyuz TMA-13/12 | 12 October 2008 | / |
| Self-funded space tourist to the International Space Station. Born in the UK to American parents (son ofSkylab astronautOwen Garriott). | ||||
| Timothy Peake | Chichester, West Sussex | Soyuz TMA-19M | 15 December 2015 | |
| ESA astronaut. First British government-funded Briton in space and aboard the International Space Station. | ||||
| Hamish Harding | Hammersmith, London, United Kingdom | Blue Origin NS-21 | 4 June 2022 | / |
| Self-funded, space flight participant. Flew onBlue Origin NS-21 on June 4, 2022. | ||||
| Vanessa O'Brien | Michigan, USA | Blue Origin NS-22 | 4 August 2022 | / |
| Flew onBlue Origin NS-22 on August 4, 2022. Funding offset to conduct overview effect research study on the human brain. Emigrated to United Kingdom in 1999. | ||||
US Air Force ColonelGregory H. Johnson served as pilot on twoEndeavour missions (STS-123 andSTS-134). Although born in the UK while his father was stationed at a US Air Force base, he has never been a British citizen and is not otherwise associated with the UK. He is sometimes incorrectly listed as a British astronaut.[50][51][56][57][note 1]
Anthony Llewellyn (born inCardiff, Wales) was selected as a scientist-astronaut byNASA during August 1967 but resigned during September 1968, having never flown in space.
ArmyLieutenants-ColonelAnthony Boyle (born inKidderminster) andRichard Farrimond (born inBirkenhead, Cheshire),MoD employee Christopher Holmes (born in London),Royal Navy CommanderPeter Longhurst (born inStaines, Middlesex) andRAF Squadron LeaderNigel Wood (born in York) were selected in February 1984 aspayload specialists for theSkynet 4 programme, intended for launch using the Space Shuttle. Boyle resigned from the programme in July 1984 due to Army commitments. Prior to the cancellation of the missions after theChallenger disaster, Wood was due to fly aboard Shuttle missionSTS-61-H in 1986 (with Farrimond serving as his back-up) and Longhurst was due to fly aboard Shuttle missionSTS-71-C in 1987 (with Holmes serving as back-up). All resigned abruptly in 1986, citing fears and safety concerns post-Challenger.
Army Air Corps MajorTimothy Mace (born inCatterick, Yorkshire) served as back-up to Helen Sharman for theSoyuz TM-12 / Project Juno mission in 1991. He resigned in 1991, having not flown. Clive Smith andRoyal Navy Surgeon Lieutenant Commander Gordon Brooks also served for a year as back-up astronauts for the Juno flight, learning Russian and preparing the scientific programme. Sharman, Mace and Brooks were subsequently put forward by the BNSC for the European Space Corps.
Former RAF pilotDavid Mackay was appointed as Chief Pilot byVirgin Galactic in 2009, and is participating in the flight test programme of the suborbital spaceplaneSpaceShipTwo.
Singer/songwriter and actressSarah Brightman announced on 10 October 2012 her intention to purchase a Soyuz seat to the International Space Station as a self-fundedspace tourist in partnership withSpace Adventures. She underwent cosmonaut training with the aim of flying onSoyuz TMA-18M, but stated on 13 May 2015 that she was withdrawing "for family reasons". It is not known whether she intends to fly at a later date.
On 1 July 2021Virgin Galactic announced that Richard Branson (its founder) and Colin Bennet (the Lead Operations Engineer) would fly as part of the crew to space onVSS Unity. Subject to the definition of space (as VSS Unity reaches above 80 km, the US government definition of space, but does not typically reach theKarman line) this would make them the UK's 8th and 9th astronauts.[58]
The2022 European Space Agency Astronaut Group includes three British citizens as candidates –Rosemary Coogan (career),Meganne Christian (reserve), andJohn McFall (parastronaut).
Notable fictional depictions of British spacecraft or Britons in space include:
"The real end game here is SkyNet," said one industry executive, referring to the military grade constellation that for 17 years has been operated by Airbus, and whose contract is soon coming to an end.
reforms are designed to lower the sector's insurance costs and to make it easier for future space tourism companies to operate out of the UK. The government says it has recognised the success the British space sector has achieved in recent years and wants to offer it further support to maintain and grow its global market position.
