 | This articleneeds additional citations forverification. Please helpimprove this article byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Bengal Presidency" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(September 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Part ofa series on the |
|---|
| History ofBengal |
 |
Ancient Kingdoms |
Colonial Bengal |
Modern period
|
Part ofa series on the |
|---|
| History ofWest Bengal |
 |
Colonial period |
|
Related articles |
Part ofa series on the | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| History ofBangladesh | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ancient
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Medieval
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Early Modern
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Modern
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Related articles | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 Bangladesh portal | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Part ofa series on the |
|---|
| History ofIndia |
 |
| Timeline |
Prehistoric
|
Ancient
|
|
|
|
Early modern
|
Modern
|
Related articles
|
| Part of a series on |
| Bengalis |
|---|
 |
|
TheBengal Presidency, officially thePresidency of Fort William in Bengal until 1937, later theBengal Province, was the largest of all threepresidencies of British India duringCompany rule and later aProvince of British India.[5] At the height of its territorial jurisdiction, it covered large parts of what is now South Asia and Southeast Asia. Bengal proper covered the ethno-linguistic region ofBengal (present-dayBangladesh and theIndian state of West Bengal).Calcutta, the city which grew aroundFort William, was the capital of the Bengal Presidency. For many years, thegovernor of Bengal was concurrently thegovernor-general of India and Calcutta was thecapital of India until 1911.
The Bengal Presidency emerged from trading posts established in theBengal province during the reign of EmperorJahangir in 1612. The East India Company (EIC), a British Indian monopoly with a royal charter, competed with other European companies to gain influence in Bengal. In 1757 and 1764, the company defeated theNawab of Bengal, who acted on Mughal sovereignty, at theBattle of Plassey and theBattle of Buxar, and Bengal came under British influence. In 1765, EmperorShah Alam II granted revenue rights over Bengal to the company and the judicial rights in 1793. After this, the Bengal province was later merged with the Presidency of Fort William but under the suzerainty of the Emperor until 1835.[6]
In 1836, the upper territories of the Bengal Presidency were organised into the Agra Division orNorthern States (United Provinces) and administered by a lieutenant-governor within the Presidency. The lower territories were organised into the Bengal Division and put in charge of lieutenant-governor as well in 1853. The office of the governor of the Presidency was abolished and the Presidency existed as only a nominal entity under the dual government of the two lieutenant-governors atAgra and Calcutta. The 1887, the Agra Division was separated from the Presidency and merged with the Oudh province, ending the dual government. In 1912, the governor was restored. In the early 20th century, Bengal emerged as a hotbed of theIndian independence movement and theBengali Renaissance,[7] as well as education, politics, law, science andthe arts. It was home to the largest city in India and the second-largest city in theBritish Empire.[8]
At its territorial height in the mid nineteenth century, the Bengal Presidency extended from theKhyber Pass to Singapore.[9][10][11] In 1853,the Punjab was separated from the Presidency into a new province. In 1861, theSaugor and Nerbudda Territories of the North-Western Provinces (which was then a division of the Bengal Presidency) were separated from the Presidency and merged with theNagpur Province to created theCentral Provinces. In 1871, Ajmer and Merwara which were also administered as a part of the Northern States were separated from the Presidency to form theAjmer-Merwara State. In 1874,Assam State was separated from Bengal.[11] In 1862,Burma division became a separate state.[12] In 1877, theNorth-Western States were finally separated from Bengal and merged with Oudh which later created the Northern States or United Provinces. Thus, by 1877, the Bengal Presidency included only modern-dayBihar,Jharkhand,Orissa andBengal. In 1905, thefirst partition of Bengal resulted in the short-lived state ofEastern Bengal and Assam which existed alongside the Bengal Presidency. In 1912, the state was merged back with the Bengal Presidency whileBihar and Orissa became a separate state.
In 1862, theBengal Legislative Council became the firstlegislature in British India with native representation, after a petition from theBritish Indian Association of Calcutta.[13][14] As part of efforts towardshome rule, theGovernment of India Act 1935 created abicameral legislature, with theBengal Legislative Assembly becoming the largest state assembly in India in 1937. The office of thePrime Minister of Bengal was established as part of growing provincial autonomy. After the 1946 election, rising Hindu-Muslim divisions across India forced the Bengal Assembly to decide on partition, despite calls for aUnited Bengal. ThePartition of British India in 1947 resulted in thesecond partition of Bengal on religious grounds intoEast Bengal (present-day Bangladesh) andWest Bengal and West Bengal (not to be confused with West Bengal Indian State) intoTripura.
In 1599, aroyal charter was granted byQueen Elizabeth I to allow the creation of a trading company in London for the purposes of trade with the East Indies. The governance of the company was placed in the hands of a governor and a 24-member Court of Directors. The corporation became known as the Honourable East India Company (HEIC). It became the most powerful corporation of its time, with control over half ofworld trade.Edmund Burke described the company as "a state in the guise of a merchant".[15] It was described as a "state within a state", and even "an empire within an empire".[16] The company was given a monopoly for British trade in the Indian Ocean.[17]
In 1608,Mughal EmperorJahangir allowed the English East India Company to establish a small trading post on the west coast of India. It was followed in 1611 by afactory on theCoromandel Coast in South India, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies to trade in the wealthyBengal Subah in the east.[18] However, the power of the Mughal Empire declined from 1707, as the Nawab of Bengal inMurshidabad became financially independent with the help of bankers such as theJagat Seth. The Nawabs began entering into treaties with numerous European companies, including theFrench East India Company, theDutch East India Company, and theDanish East India Company.
The Mughal court in Delhi was weakened byNader Shah's invasion from Persia (1739) andAhmed Shah Durrani's invasion from Afghanistan (1761). While the Bengal Subah suffered a decade ofMaratha raids, through bands ofBargir-giri light cavalry, directed to pillage the territory, between 1741 and 1751.[19] In 1742 the Company chooses to spend Rs. 25 thousand on the construction of a 3 km Maratha ditch around Calcutta, to protect its facilities from the raiders.[20] The Nawab of Bengal later signed a peace treaty with the Marathas in 1751, and cededOrrisa and paid Rs. 1.2 million annually as thechauth.[21] The Nawab of Bengal also paid Rs. 3.2 million to the Marathas, towards the arrears ofchauth for the preceding years.[22]
In June 1756 the company's factories atCossimbazar[23] andCalcutta were besieged and captured by the forces of the Nawab of Bengal, with the company's goods, treasure and weapons seized.[24][unreliable source?] Calcutta being renamed Alinagar in honour of theSiraj ud-Daulah's predecessor. A Company force, led by Watson andRobert Clive, recaptured Fort William in January 1757, with the Nawab, Siraj ud-Daulah, agreeing theTreaty of Alinagar, reestablishing the company's right to trade in Bengal, and fortify Fort William. In parallel Robert Clive conspired with Jagat Seth, Omichand andMir Jafar to install the latter on the musnud of Bengal, a plan that they would implement in June 1757.[25]
The East India Company's victories at theBattle of Plassey (1757) and theBattle of Buxar (against the Nawabs of Bengal andOudh in 1764) led to the abolition of local rule (Nizamat) in Bengal in 1793. The Company gradually began to formally expand its territories across India and Southeast Asia.[26] By the mid-19th century, the East India Company had become the paramount political and military power in theIndian subcontinent. Its territory was held intrust for theBritish Crown.[27] The company also issued coins in the name of the nominal Mughal Emperor (who was exiled in 1857).
UnderWarren Hastings, the consolidation of British imperial rule over Bengal was solidified, with the conversion of a trade area into an occupied territory under a military-civil government, while the formation of a regularised system of legislation was brought in underJohn Shore. Acting throughLord Cornwallis, then governor-general, he ascertained and defined the rights of the landholders over the soil. These landholders under the previous system had started, for the most part, as collectors of the revenues, and gradually acquired certain prescriptive rights as quasi-proprietors of the estates entrusted to them by the government. In 1793 Lord Cornwallis declared their rights perpetual, and gave over the land of Bengal to the previous quasi-proprietors orzamindars, on condition of the payment of a fixed land tax. This piece of legislation is known as thePermanent Settlement of the Land Revenue. It was designed to "introduce" ideas of property rights to India, and stimulate a market in land. The former aim misunderstood the nature of landholding in India, and the latter was an abject failure.
TheCornwallis Code, while defining the rights of the proprietors, failed to give adequate recognition to the rights of the under-tenants and the cultivators. This remained a serious problem for the duration of British Rule, as throughout the Bengal Presidencyryots (peasants) found themselves oppressed by rack-renting landlords, who knew that every rupee they could squeeze from their tenants over and above the fixed revenue demanded from the government represented pure profit. Furthermore, the Permanent Settlement took no account of inflation, meaning that the value of the revenue to government declined year by year, whilst the heavy burden on the peasantry grew no less. This was compounded in the early 19th century by compulsory schemes for the cultivation ofopium andindigo, the former by the state, and the latter by British planters. Peasants were forced to grow a certain area of these crops, which were then purchased at below market rates for export. This added greatly to rural poverty.
In 1833, the British Parliament enacted theGovernment of India Act 1833 abolishing the monopoly rights of the Company and converting it into a purely governing body holding its territories in India in trust of the Crown. The Act relieved the governor-in-councils of Bombay and Madras of their legislative duties and consolidated all legislative functions to the governor-general-in-council of India at Calcutta and created a supreme government of India at Calcutta with the office of governor-general of India replacing the governor-general of Fort William. The act also created for the establishment of a newPresidency of Agra with its own Governor-in-council from the ceded and conquered territories of the Presidency of Fort William and also sought to separate the functions of the Presidency of Fort William from the government of India and governor-general of India in council. This was however never fully implemented and instead another act of Parliament[which?] in 1835 created theNorth-Western Provinces with a lieutenant-governor at Agra and also provided for the creation of a similar arrangement with a lieutenant-governor of Bengal. All four provinces, i.e., North-Western Provinces, Bengal Presidency, Madras Presidency and Bombay Presidency were equal in status and independent of each other, subordinate only to the government of India.[28] New conquests in Punjab (1849), Burma (1826) and Oudh (1856) were constituted as Chief Commissioner's Provinces directly administered by the government of India. TheGovernment of India Act 1853 finally allocated a lieutenant-governor to Bengal, which until now had been administered by the governor-general of India. The act also allocated lieutenant-governors to Punjab and Burma. TheBengal Army and the Bengal Civil Service continued to operate in the three lieutenant governorships, however they were under the control of the government of India rather than the Bengal government. The Bengal Civil Service was merged into the Indian Civil Service later along with the other two civil services and the Bengal Army was finally amalgamated into the newIndian Army in 1904–5, after a lengthy struggle over its reform betweenLord Kitchener, the commander-in-chief, andLord Curzon, the Viceroy.
In 1830, the British Straits Settlements on the coast of theMalacca Straits was made a residency of the Presidency of Bengal in Calcutta. The area included the erstwhilePrince of Wales Island andProvince Wellesley, as well as the ports ofMalacca and Singapore.[12]
Under the administration of the East India Company, the Settlements were used aspenal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners,[29] earning them the title of the "Botany Bays of India".[30]: 29 The years 1852 and 1853 saw minor uprisings by convicts in Singapore and Penang.[31]: 91 Upset with East India Company rule, in 1857 the European population of the Settlements sent a petition to the British Parliament[32] asking for direct rule.
In 1859, under the terms of the Queen's Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria, the Bengal Presidency, along with the rest of British India, came under the direct rule of the British Crown.[33]
The partition of the large province of Bengal, which was decided upon by Lord Curzon, and Cayan Uddin Ahmet, the Chief Secretary of Bengal carried into execution in October 1905. TheChittagong,Dhaka andRajshahi divisions, theMalda District and the States ofHill Tripura,Sylhet andComilla were transferred from Bengal to a new province,Eastern Bengal and Assam; the five Hindi-speaking states ofChota Nagpur, namelyChangbhakar,Korea,Surguja,Udaipur andJashpur State, were transferred from Bengal to the Central Provinces; andSambalpur State and the five Oriya states ofBamra,Rairakhol,Sonepur,Patna andKalahandi were transferred from theCentral Provinces to Bengal.
The remaining province of Bengal then consisted of the thirty-three districts ofBurdwan,Birbhum,Bankura,Midnapur,Hughli,Howrah,Twenty-four Parganas,Calcutta,Nadia,Murshidabad,Jessore,Khulna,Patna,Gaya,Shahabad,Saran,Champaran,Muzaffarpur,Darbhanga,Monghyr,Bhagalpur,Purnea,Santhal Parganas,Cuttack,Balasore,Angul andKandhmal,Puri,Sambalpur,Singhbhum,Hazaribagh,Ranchi,Palamau, andManbhum. Theprincely states ofSikkim and thetributary states ofOdisha andChhota Nagpur were not part of Bengal, but British relations with them were managed by its government.
TheIndian Councils Act 1909 expanded the legislative councils of Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam provinces to include up to 50 nominated and elected members, in addition to threeex officio members from the executive council.[34]
Bengal's legislative council included 22 nominated members, of which not more than 17 could be officials, and two nominated experts. Of the 26 elected members, one was elected by theCorporation of Calcutta, six by municipalities, six by district boards, one by theUniversity of Calcutta, five by landholders, four by Muslims, two by the Bengal Chamber of Commerce, and one by the Calcutta Trades Association. Eastern Bengal and Assam's legislative council included 22 nominated members, of which not more than 17 be officials and one representing Indian commerce, and two nominated experts. Of the 18 elected members, three were elected by municipalities, five by district and local boards, two by landowners, four by Muslims, two by the tea interest, one by the jute interest, and one by the Commissioners of thePort of Chittagong.[35]
The partition of Bengal proved highly controversial, as it resulted in a largely Hindu West Bengal and a largely Muslim East. Serious popular agitation followed the step, partly on the grounds that this was part of a cynical policy of divide and rule, and partly that the Bengali population, the centre of whose interests and prosperity was Calcutta, would now be divided under two governments, instead of being concentrated and numerically dominant under the one, while the bulk would be in the new division. In 1906–1909 the unrest developed to a considerable extent, requiring special attention from the Indian and Home governments, and this led to the decision being reversed in 1911.
At theDelhi Durbar on 12 December 1911, Emperor George V announced the transfer of the seat of the government of India from Calcutta to Delhi, the reunification of the five predominantly Bengali-speaking divisions into a unified province of Bengal under a governor, the creation of a new province ofBihar and Orissa under a lieutenant-governor, and thatAssam Province would be reconstituted under a chief commissioner. On 21 March 1912Thomas Gibson-Carmichael was appointed governor of Bengal. On 22 March the provinces of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and Assam were constituted.[36]
The Government of India Act 1919 increased the number of nominated and elected members of the legislative council from 50 to 125, and the franchise was expanded.[37]Bihar andOrissa became separate provinces in 1936. Bengal remained in its 1912 boundaries until Independence in 1947, when it was again partitioned between the dominions of India and Pakistan.
On 8 May 1947, ViceroyEarl Mountbatten cabled the British government with a partition plan that made an exception for Bengal. It was the only province that would be allowed to remain independent should it choose to do so. On 23 May, the British Cabinet meeting also hoped that Bengal would remain united. British Prime MinisterClement Attlee informed theUS Ambassador to the United Kingdom on 2 June 1947 that there was a "distinct possibility that Bengal might decide against partition and against joining either India or Pakistan".[38] On 6 July 1947, theSylhet referendum gave a mandate for theDistrict of Sylhet to be re-united into Bengal. However, Hindu nationalist leaders in West Bengal and conservative East Bengali Muslim leaders were against the prospect.
On 20 June 1947, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to vote on partition plans. At the preliminary joint session, the assembly decided by 126 votes to 90 that if it remained united it should join the new Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. Later, a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal decided by 58 votes to 21 that the province should be partitioned and that West Bengal should join the existing Constituent Assembly of India. In another separate meeting of legislators from East Bengal, it was decided by 106 votes to 35 that the province should not be partitioned and 107 votes to 34 that East Bengal should join Pakistan in the event of partition.[39] There was no vote held on the proposal for an independent United Bengal.
Initially, Bengal was under the administration of the East India Company, which appointed chief agents/presidents/governors/lieutenant governors in Fort William. The governor of Bengal was concurrently the governor-general of India for many years. The East India Company maintained control with its private armies and administrative machinery. Nevertheless, the East India Company was a quasi-official entity, having received aRoyal Charter fromQueen Elizabeth I in 1600. TheIndian Rebellion of 1857 caused the British government to assume direct control of India's administration under theGovernment of India Act 1858. The head of state became theBritish monarch, who was also given the title ofEmperor of India/Empress of India. The monarch was represented through a viceroy. TheViceroy of India was based in the Bengal Presidency until 1911. TheSecretary of State for India was also an important official. The Bengal Civil Service managed the provincial government. Modern scholars decry the colonial system as bureaucratic authoritarianism.[40]
Established byCharter Act 1833, theGovernor-General in Council was subordinate to the Court of Directors of the East India Company and the British Crown. The governor-general in council in Fort William enacted legislation, such as the prohibition of Persian as an official language under Act no. XXIX of 1837 passed by the president of the Council of India in Council on 20 November 1837.
TheCalcutta High Court was set up in 1862. The building was designed on the model ofYpres Cloth Hall in Belgium. TheDacca High Court building was built during the early 20th century, with elements of a Romanpantheon. District courts were established in all district headquarters of the Bengal Presidency. At the district level, tax collectors and revenue officers acted with the power ofmagistrates. In 1829, magisterial power was given to all Collectors and Revenue Officers. The controversy regarding the lack ofseparation of powers continued until 1921.[41]
The British government began to appoint legislative councils under theIndian Councils Act 1861. The Bengal Legislative Council was established in 1862. It was one of the largest and most important legislative councils in British India. Over the years, the council's powers were gradually expanded from an advisory role to debating government policies and enacting legislation. Under theGovernment of India Act 1935, the council became theupper chamber of the Bengali legislature.
British India'sMontagu–Chelmsford Reforms of 1919, enacted in 1921, expanded the Bengal Legislative Council to 140 members to include more elected Indian members. The reforms also introduced the principle ofdyarchy, whereby certain responsibilities such as agriculture, health, education, and local government, were transferred to elected ministers. However, the important portfolios like finance, police and irrigation were reserved with members of the governor's executive council. Some of the prominent ministers wereSurendranath Banerjee (Local Self-government and Public Health 1921–1923), Sir Provash Chunder Mitter (Education 1921–1924, Local Self-government, Public Health, Agriculture and Public Works 1927–1928), Nawab Saiyid Nawab Ali Chaudhuri (Agriculture and Public Works) andA. K. Fazlul Huq (Education 1924).Bhupendra Nath Bose and SirAbdur Rahim were executive members in the governor's council.[42]
The Government of India Act 1935 established the Bengal Legislative Assembly as the lower chamber of the Bengali legislature. It was a 250-seat assembly where most members were elected by either the General Electorate or the Muslim Electorate (under theCommunal Award). Other members were nominated. The separate electorate dividing Muslims from the general electorate was deeply controversial. ThePrime Minister of Bengal was a member of the assembly.
In the1937 election, theCongress emerged as the single largest party but short of an absolute majority. The second-largest party was theBengal Provincial Muslim League (BPML), followed closely in third place by theKrishak Praja Party (KPP). After negotiations between Congress and the KPP broke down, the BPML and KPP formed a coalition government.[43]A. K. Fazlul Huq, a founder of the BPML who later broke away to form the Krishak Praja Party, was elected as parliamentary leader and prime minister. Huq pursued a policy ofHindu–Muslim unity. His cabinet included leading Hindu and Muslim figures, includingNalini Ranjan Sarkar (finance), Bijoy Prasad Singha Roy (revenue), MaharajaSrish Chandra Nandy (communications and public works), Prasanna Deb Raikut (forest and excise), Mukunda Behari Mallick (cooperative credit and rural indebtedness), Sir Khwaja Nazimuddin (home), NawabKhwaja Habibullah (agriculture and industry), Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (commerce and labour),Nawab Musharraf Hussain (judicial and legislative affairs), andSyed Nausher Ali (public health and local self-government).[44] Huq promoted financial andland reforms with the Bengal Agricultural Debtors' Act (1938), The Money Lenders' Act (1938), and the Bengal Tenancy (Amendment) Act (1938). He introduced the Primary Education Bill to make primary education free and compulsory. He established schools such as theLady Brabourne College. In 1941, Prime Minister Huq joined the Viceroy's Defence Council in support ofAllied war efforts. In a letter to GovernorJohn Herbert, Huq called for the resurrection of a Bengal Army. He wrote "I want you to consent to the formation of a Bengali Army of a hundred thousand young Bengalis consisting of Hindu and Muslim youths on a fifty-fifty basis. There is an insistent demand for such a step being taken at once, and the people of Bengal will not be satisfied with any excuses. It is a national demand which must be immediately conceded".[45] Huq supported the adoption of theLahore Resolution in 1940. He envisaged Bengal as one of the "independent states" outlined by the resolution.
The first Huq cabinet dissolved after the BPML withdrew from his government. Huq then formed a second coalition with theHindu Mahasabha led bySyama Prasad Mukherjee. This cabinet was known as the Shyama-Huq Coalition.[44] The cabinet included Nawab Bahabur Khwaja Habibullah, Khan Bahadur Abdul Karim, Khan Bahadur Hashem Ali Khan, Shamsuddin Ahmed, Syama Prasad Mukherjee, Santosh Kumar Bose and Upendranath Barman. Huq's government fell in 1943 and a BPML government underSir Khawaja Nazimuddin as prime minister was formed. Nazimuddin's tenure coincided with the Bengal famine of 1943. His government was replaced byGovernor's rule. After the end of World War II,elections were held in 1946 in which the BPML won an overwhelming majority of 113 seats in the 250-seat assembly. A government underHuseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy was formed.[46] Prime Minister Suhrawardy continued with the policy of power-sharing between Hindus and Muslims. He also advocated a plan for a Bengali sovereign state with amulticonfessionalist political system. The breakdown of Hindu-Muslim unity across India eventually upended Bengali power-sharing. Religious violence, including theNoakhali riots andDirect Action Day riots, contributed to the polarization. When the Bengal Assembly met to vote on Partition, most West Bengali legislators held a separate meeting and resolved to partition the province and join the Indian union. Most East Bengali legislators favored an undivided Bengal.
The Bengal Assembly was divided into theWest Bengal Legislative Assembly andEast Bengal Legislative Assembly during the Partition of British India.
English common law was applied to Bengal. Local legislation was enacted by the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly.Case law was also an important source of law. Many laws enacted in British Bengal are still in use today, including theIndian Penal Code. In 1919, theRowlatt Act extended wartime powers under the Defence of India Act 1915, including arbitrary arrests and trial without juries. Press freedom was muzzled by the Indian Press Act 1910. The Seditious Meetings Act 1908 curtailed freedom of assembly. Regulation III of 1818 was also considered draconian. KingGeorge V granted a royal amnesty to free political prisoners. Some draconian laws were repealed, including the Rowlatt Act.[47] Despite being a common law jurisdiction, British India did not enjoy the same level of protection for civil liberties as in the United Kingdom. It was only after independence in 1947 and the adoption of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, that human rights were clearly enshrined in law.
Princely states were autonomous principalities under thesuzerainty of the British Crown in India. Initially, the Bengal Presidency managed the British government's relations with most princely states in the northern subcontinent, extending fromJammu and Kashmir in the north toManipur in the northeast. AnAgency was often formed to be the liaison between the government and the princely states. The largest of these agencies under Bengal once included theRajputana Agency. Other agencies covered theChota Nagpur Tributary States and theOrissa Tributary States. Agents were also appointed to deal with tribal chiefs, such as the three tribal kings in theChittagong Hill Tracts. At the time of the partition of India in 1947, the jurisdiction of theBengal States Agency includedCooch Behar State andHill Tipperah.
Bengal was strategically important for the Himalayan regions of Nepal,Tibet, Bhutan and Sikkim. TheAnglo-Nepalese War between the East India Company and theKingdom of Nepal was concluded with theTreaty of Sugauli, which endedGorkha territorial expansion. TheTreaty of Titalia was signed in 1817 between the HEIC and theKingdom of Sikkim to establish British hegemony over Sikkim. TheBhutan War in the 1860s saw theKingdom of Bhutan lose control of theBengal Duars to the British. TheBritish expedition to Tibet took place between 1903 and 1904. It resulted in theTreaty of Lhasa which acknowledgedQing China's supremacy over Tibet.
The United States of America began sending envoys to Fort William in the 18th century. PresidentGeorge Washington nominated Benjamin Joy as the first Consul to Fort William on 19 November 1792. The nomination was supported by the erstwhile Secretary of StateThomas Jefferson and approved by the U. S. Senate on 21 November 1792. Benjamin Joy reached Calcutta in 1794. The HEIC did not recognize Joy as an official consul but allowed him to be a Commercial Agent.[48] The AmericanConsulate General was established during formal British rule. A consular agency for Chittagong was created in the 1860s. Many other countries also set up consulates in Calcutta.
British rule saw the establishment ofliberal arts colleges in many districts of Bengal. There were only two full-fledged universities in Bengal during British rule, including the University of Calcutta and the University of Dacca. Both universities were represented in the Bengal Legislative Assembly under the Government of India Act 1935.
Primary education was mandatory under the Compulsory Education Acts.[49] Despite significant advances and the emergence of a large educated middle class, most of the population did not have access to a proper education. Some of the leading schools included theOriental Seminary in Calcutta, theSt. Gregory's High School in Dacca, theRajshahi Collegiate School in Rajshahi and theChittagong Collegiate School in Chittagong. European missionaries, Hindu philanthropists and Muslim aristocrats were influential promoters of education. Ethnic minorities maintained their own institutions, such as the ArmenianPogose School.
Each district of Bengal had adistrict school, which were the leading secondary institutions. Due to Calcutta being the colonial capital, the city had a large concentration of educational institutions. It was followed by Dacca, which served as a provincial capital between 1905 and 1912. Libraries were established in each district of Bengal by the colonial government and thezamindars. In 1854, four major public libraries were opened, including the Bogra Woodburn Library, the Rangpur Public Library, theJessore Institute Public Library and the Barisal Public Library.Northbrook Hall was established in 1882 in honor of Governor-GeneralLord Northbrook. Other libraries built include the Victoria Public Library, Natore (1901), the Sirajganj Public Library (1882), theRajshahi Public Library (1884), the Comilla Birchandra Library (1885), the Shah Makhdum Institute Public Library, Rajshahi (1891), the Noakhali Town Hall Public Library (1896), the Prize Memorial Library, Sylhet (1897), the Chittagong Municipality Public Library (1904) and the Varendra Research Library (1910). In 1925, the Great Bengal Library Association was established.[50]
Europeans played an important role in modernizing the Bengali language. The first book onBengali grammar was compiled by a Portuguese missionary.[51] English was the official language. The use of Persian as an official language was discontinued by Act no. XXIX of 1837 passed by the President of the Council of India in Council on 20 November 1837. However, Persian continued to be taught in some institutions. Several institutions had Sanskrit and Arabic faculties.[52]The following includes a partial list of notable colleges, universities and learned societies in the Bengal Presidency.
.jpg)
Mughal Bengal was a major exporter of raw silk, cotton, and rice.[53] With its proto-industrial economy, Bengal contributed to the firstIndustrial Revolution in Britain (particularly intextile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution). After 1757, the British placed Bengal undercompany rule (which led to Bengalideindustrialization).[54] Other European powers in the region included theFrench East India Company, theDutch East India Company, theOstend Company and theDanish East India Company. Initially, the English East India Company promoted opium cultivation which caused theOpium Wars withQing China. The East India Company's promotion of indigo farming caused theIndigo revolt. The British were much criticized for favoring textile imports and suppressing localmuslin production. The chaos of the Company rule period culminated in theIndian Mutiny in 1857. In 1858, the British government gained direct control of Indian administration. Bengal was plugged into the market-driven economy and trade networks of theBritish Empire.
The Bengal Presidency had the largest gross domestic product in British India.[55] The first British colonial banks in the Indian subcontinent were founded in Bengal. These included the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar (1733);Bank of Hindostan (1770), Bank of Bengal (1784); and the General Bank of India (1786). Other banks in Bengal included theBank of Calcutta (1806), Union Bank (1829); Government Savings Bank (1833); The Bank of Mirzapore (c. 1835); Dacca Bank (1846); Kurigram Bank (1887), Kumarkhali Bank (1896), Mahaluxmi Bank, Chittagong (1910), Dinajpur Bank (1914), Comilla Banking Corporation (1914),Bengal Central Bank (1918), and Comilla Union Bank (1922).[56] Loan offices were established in Faridpur (1865), Bogra (1872), Barisal (1873), Mymensingh (1873), Nasirabad (1875), Jessore (1876), Munshiganj (1876), Dacca (1878), Sylhet (1881), Pabna (1882), Kishoreganj (1883), Noakhali (1885), Khulna (1887), Madaripur (1887), Tangail (1887), Nilphamari (1894) and Rangpur (1894).[56]
The earliest records of securities dealings are the loan securities of theBritish East India Company. In 1830, bourse activities in Calcutta were conducted in the open air under a tree.[57] TheCalcutta Stock Exchange was incorporated in 1908. Some of the leading companies in British Bengal included Messrs. Alexander and Co,Waldies,Martin Burn,M. M. Ispahani Limited,James Finlay and Co.,A K Khan & Company, theCalcutta Chemical Company,Bourne & Shepherd, the Indo-Burmah Petroleum Company,Orient Airways,Shaw Wallace,Carew & Co,Aditya Birla Group,Tata Group,Balmer Lawrie,Biecco Lawrie,Braithwaite, Burn & Jessop Construction Company,Braithwaite & Co.,Bridge and Roof Company,Britannia Industries,Burn Standard Company andAndrew Yule and Company. Some of these enterprises were nationalized after the Partition of India.
Agricultural products included rice, sugarcane and vegetables. The main cash crops werejute and tea. Thejute trade was central to the British Bengali economy. Bengal accounted for the bulk of the world's jute production and export. Raw jute was sourced from the hinterland of Eastern Bengal. The British government declared thePort of Narayanganj as a "Tax Free Port" in 1878. Rally Brothers & Co. was one of the earliest British companies in the jute business of Narayanganj. British firms used middlemen, calledbeparis, to source raw jute from the hinterland. In 1907, 20 firms were engaged in the jute trade of Narayanganj, including 18 European firms.[58] Hindu merchants opened several cotton mills in the 1920s, including the Dhakeshwari Cotton Mill, the Chittaranjan Cotton Mill and the Laxmi Narayan Cotton Mill.[58] Other goods traded in Narayanganj included timber, salt, textiles, oil, cotton, tobacco, pottery, seeds and betel nut. Raw goods were processed by factories in Calcutta, especially jute mills. ThePort of Chittagong was re-organized in 1887 under the Port Commissioners Act. Its busiest trade links were withBritish Burma, including the ports ofAkyab andRangoon;[59] and other Bengali ports, including Calcutta,Dhaka and Narayanganj.[60] In the fiscal year 1889–90, Chittagong handled exports totalling 125,000 tons.[61] TheStrand Road was built beside the port. In 1928, the British government declared Chittagong as a "Major Port" of British India.[62] Chittagong's port was used byAllied Forces of World War II during theBurma Campaign.
ThePort of Calcutta was the largest seaport of British India. The port was constructed by the British East India Company. It was one of the busiest ports in the world during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Calcutta was a major trading port with links to ports across the British Empire. Its local hinterland spanned beyond Bengal to include north and northeast India, the Himalayan kingdoms and Tibet. The Bay of Bengal became one of the busiest shipping hubs in the world, rivaling the traffic of ports on theAtlantic.[63] Calcutta was also an important naval base inWorld War II and was bombed by the Japanese.
Chambers of commerce were established. TheBengal Chamber of Commerce was established in 1853. The Narayanganj Chamber of Commerce was set up in 1904.[64] The textile trade of Bengal enriched many merchants. For example,Panam City inSonargaon saw manytownhouses built for wealthy textile merchants.
Tea became a major export of Bengal. Northwestern Bengal became the center ofDarjeeling tea cultivation in the foothills of the Himalayas. Darjeeling tea became one of the most reputed tea varieties in the world. TheDarjeeling Himalayan Railway was constructed in the tea plantation zone.[65] In eastern Bengal, theSylhet andChittagong hilly regions became hubs oftea production.Assam tea was produced in the northeastern part of the Bengal Presidency.
Aside from the British, the chief beneficiaries of the colonial economy were the zamindars (landed gentry). The Permanent Settlement enforced a system in which peasants were indebted to the zamindars. The peasants rented land from the zamindars and became tenant farmers. Strong control of land by the zamindars meant the British had few headaches in exploiting trade and business. However, Bengal received little attention for industrialization due to the entrenched peasant-zamindar relationship under the Permanent Settlement.[66] Thezamindars of Bengal built mansions, lodges, modern bungalows, townhouses, and palaces on their estates. Some of the largest mansions include theHazarduari Palace inMurshidabad, theAhsan Manzil on theNawab of Dhaka's estate, theMarble Palace in Calcutta, and theCooch Behar Palace.
After the invention of railways in Britain, British India became the first region in Asia to have a railway. TheEast Indian Railway Company introduced railways to Bengal. The company was established on 1 June 1845 in London by a deed of settlement with a capital of £4,000,000. Its first line connected Calcutta with towns in northern India. By 1859, there were 77 engines, 228 coaches and 848 freight wagons. Large quantities ofsal tree wood were imported fromNepal to design the sleepers.[67][68] In 1862, railways were introduced to eastern Bengal with theEastern Bengal Railway. The first line connected Calcutta andKushtia. By 1865, the railway was extended toRajbari on the banks of thePadma River. By 1902, the railway was extended to Assam. TheAssam Bengal Railway was established to serve the northeastern part of the Bengal Presidency, with its terminus in Chittagong.[69]
TheBengal and North Western Railway was set up in 1882 to link towns in theOudh region with Calcutta. Several railway bridges, such as theHardinge Bridge, were built over rivers in Bengal. In 1999,UNESCO recognized the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway as aWorld Heritage Site.
In the 1830s the East India Company began to rebuild the ancientGrand Trunk Road into a paved highway. The company required the road for commercial and administrative purposes. It linked Calcutta toPeshawar in the North-West Frontier Province. For the project, the company founded a college to train and employ local surveyors, engineers, and overseers.[70][71] In the east, the road extended to Sonargaon, Comilla and Chittagong. After the first partition of Bengal in 1905, newly built highways connected the inaccessible areas of Assam and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. All district towns were connected by an inter-district road network.[72]
Aghat in Bengal refers to ariver port. The busiest river ports included thePort of Calcutta, thePort of Dhaka, thePort of Narayanganj andGoalundo Ghat.
After the first partition of Bengal in 1905, a number of new ferry services were introduced connecting Chittagong, Dhaka, Bogra, Dinajpur, Rangpur, Jalpaiguri, Maldah and Rajshahi. This improved communication network boosted trade and commerce.[72]
An early attempt at manned flight in Bengal was by a young femaleballoonist named Jennette Rumary who at the time was associated withPark Van Tassel and took the stage nameJennette Van Tassell. Invited to perform by theNawab of Dhaka, at 6.20 pm on 16 March 1892, Jennette set off to fly from the southern bank of the RiverBuriganga. But a gusting wind carried her off to the gardens ofShahbag, where her balloon became stuck in a tree. During her rescue from the tree she fell and died two days later. Jennette is interred in the Christian graveyard at Narinda in Old Dhaka.[73]
An airfield opened next to aRoyal Artillery station on the outskirts of Calcutta.[74] The Governor of Bengal SirStanley Jackson opened the Bengal Flying Club in Calcutta's aerodrome in February 1929.[75] In 1930, the airfield was upgraded into a full-fledged airport.[76] It was popularly known asDum Dum Airport.Imperial Airways began flights from London to Australia via Calcutta in 1933.[77]Air Orient began scheduled stops as part of its Paris toSaigon route.[78]KLM operated a route fromAmsterdam toBatavia (Jakarta) via Calcutta.[79] Calcutta emerged as a stopover for many airlines operating routes between Europe, Indochina and Australasia.[80] The flight ofAmelia Earhart andFred Noonan, who attempted to circumnavigate the world, made a stopover in Calcutta in 1937.[81] Local airlines includedTata Air Services andOrient Airways. Bengal played an important role for the air operations of theAllied forces of World War II. TheRoyal Air Force operated airfields across Bengal during theBurma Campaign. Aircraft of theUnited States Army Air Forces were also stationed in Bengal.
The following includes a partial list of airports and airfields established during British rule in Bengal. Airfields were used by Allied Forces during World War II.
TheBengal Army was one of the Presidency Armies of British India. It was formed by the East India Company. The Commander-in-Chief of the Bengal Army was concurrently theCommander-in-Chief, India from 1853 to 1895, as the Bengal Army was the largest of the Presidency Armies.[82] TheGurkhas were also recruited under the Bengal Army. In 1895, the Bengal Army was merged into theBritish Indian Army. The British Indian Army had a Bengal Command between 1895 and 1908.[citation needed]
Major military engagements affecting British Bengal included theFirst Anglo-Burmese War, theAnglo-Nepalese War, theFirst Afghan War, the Opium Wars, theBhutan War, theSecond Anglo-Afghan War,World War I, and theBurma Campaign ofWorld War II. The chief British base in Bengal wasFort William. Across the subcontinent, the British often converted Mughal forts into military bases, such as in Delhi and Dhaka. The British also builtcantonments, includingDhaka Cantonment andChittagong Cantonment. Many Allied soldiers killed in Burma were buried in cemeteries in Chittagong and Comilla. The graveyards include theCommonwealth War Cemetery, Chittagong andMainamati War Cemetery, which are maintained by theCommonwealth War Graves Commission.
Colonial India as well as the Bengal Presidency suffered from thenumerous famines and epidemics throughout theBritish Rule. TheGreat Bengal famine of 1770 lasted until 1773 and killed approximately 10 million Bengalis. The East India Company was heavily criticized for neglecting the population's food security. The repeated bouts offamine in India, coupled with other abuses against the population, caused theBritish Parliament to gradually remove the monopoly of the East India Company, curtail the company's powers and eventually replace it withcrown rule.Warren Hastings, governor of Bengal, wascensured for the abuses of the company. Ironically, Hastings had set about to reform the company's practices and was later acquitted of any wrongdoing.[citation needed] During the trial of Hastings,Edmund Burke delivered a scathing indictment of malpractice by the company, condemning it for "injustice and treachery against the faith of nations". Burke stated:[83]
With various instances of extortion and other deeds of maladministration ... With impoverishing and depopulating the whole country ... with a wanton and unjust, and pernicious, exercise of his powers ... in overturning the ancient establishments of the country ... With cruelties unheard of and devastations almost without name ... Crimes which have their rise in the wicked dispositions of men – in avarice, rapacity, pride, cruelty, malignity, haughtiness, insolence, ferocity, treachery, cruelty, malignity of temper – in short, nothing that does not argue a total extinction of all moral principle, that does not manifest an inveterate blackness of heart, a heart blackened to the very blackest, a heart corrupted, gangrened to the core ... We have brought before you the head [Hastings] ... one in whom all the frauds, all the peculations, all the violence, all the tyranny in India are embodied.
In 1876, about 200,000 Bengalis were killed inBarisal as a result of the1876 Bengal cyclone.[84]
The Bengal Presidency endured a vast famine between1873 and 1874. TheBengal famine of 1943 killed an estimated 3 million people duringWorld War II. People died of starvation, malaria, or other diseases aggravated by malnutrition, population displacement, and lack of healthcare. Britain's wartime Prime MinisterWinston Churchill has been held responsible for the famine by prominent Indians, including politicianShashi Tharoor.[85][86] When British civil servants sent letters to London regarding the famine situation, Churchill once responded by saying "Why hasn'tGandhi died yet?".[87][85] Many scholars, however, argue that it is an exaggeration to blame him for the wartime hunger crisis. The real cause was the fall of Burma to the Japanese, which cut off India's major supply of rice imports when domestic sources fell short, which they did in Eastern Bengal following a devastating cyclone in mid-October 1942.[88]Lizzie Collingham holds the massive global dislocations of supplies caused by World War II virtually guaranteed that hunger would occur somewhere in the world, yet Churchill's racism toward the Indians decided the exact location where famine would fall.[89]
The English language replaced Persian as the official language of administration. The use of Persian was prohibited by Act no. XXIX of 1837 passed by the President of theCouncil of India in Council on 20 November 1837,[52][90] bringing an end to six centuries ofIndo-Persian culture in Bengal. TheBengali language received increased attention. European missionaries produced the first modern books onBengali grammar. In pre-colonial times, Hindus and Muslims would be highly attached to their liturgical languages, including Sanskrit and Arabic. Under British rule, the use of Bengali widened and it was strengthened as thelingua franca of the native population. Novels began to be written in Bengali. The literary polymathRabindranath Tagore was awarded theNobel Prize in Literature in 1913. The cultural activistKazi Nazrul Islam gained popularity as British India'sRebel Poet.Jagadish Chandra Bose pioneered Bengali science fiction.Begum Rokeya, author ofSultana's Dream, became an early feminist science fiction author.
Numerous newspapers were published in British Bengal since the 18th century. Many were in English.Hicky's Bengal Gazette was a major weekly publication. The first Bengali periodicals appeared in the 19th century. TheCalcutta Journal became the first daily newspaper in British India.[91] Other newspapers included theDacca News andThe Bengal Times. Radio channels began transmitting in 1927.[92]
The Company School of Painting in Calcutta, Murshidabad, and Patna saw Mughal miniatures absorb images of British colonial officials in place of Mughal officials.[93] European painters produced numerous works in Bengal since the 18th century. European photographers also worked in the region. The modernistBengal school of painting evolved in the province. European sculptures were widely imported by wealthy zamindars. In the 1940s,Zainul Abedin emerged as a modernist painter depicting poverty and the Bengal famine.
Calcutta Time was thetime zone of the Bengal Presidency. It was established in 1884. It was one of the two time zones of British India. In the latter part of the 19th century, Calcutta Time was the most prevalent time used in the Indian part of the British Empire with records of astronomical and geological events recorded in it.[94][95]
TheRoyal Bioscope Company began producingBengali cinema in 1898, producing scenes from the stage productions of a number of popular shows[96] at the Crown Theatre in Dacca and theStar Theater,Minerva Theater, and Classic Theater in Calcutta.
TheMadan Theatre started making silent films in Calcutta in 1916. The first Bengali feature film,Billwamangal, was produced and released in 1919 under the banner of the Madan Theatre. The movie was directed by Rustomji Dhotiwala and produced by Priyonath Ganguli. A Bengali film company called theIndo British Film Co was soon formed in Calcutta byDhirendra Nath Ganguly. Ganguly directed and wroteBilat Ferat in 1921, which was the first production of the Indo British Film Co.Jamai Shashthi (1931) was one of the earliest Bengalitalkies.
In 1927–28, theDhaka Nawab Family produced a short film namedSukumary (The Good Girl).[97] After the success ofSukumary, the Nawab's family went for a bigger venture.[98] To make a full-length silent film, a temporary studio was made in the gardens of the family's estate, and they produced a full-length silent film titledThe Last Kiss, released in 1931.[99][100] The "East Bengal Cinematograph Society" was later established in Dacca.
Cricket started being played in the 1790s. TheCalcutta Cricket Club was set up in 1792. Forhorse racing, theRoyal Calcutta Turf Club was set up in 1847. It became British India's equivalent of theJockey Club in England in terms of arbitrating matters related to racing. In addition to horse races, the club also launchedpolo matches among natives and colonialists. Races at theCalcutta Race Course were once among the most important social events of the calendar, opened by the Viceroy of India. During the 1930s the Calcutta Derby Sweeps was a leadingsweepstake game in the world. Aracecourse was also set up in Ramna by the Dacca Club.[101] The Bengal Public Gaming (Amendment) Act (Act No. IV of 1913) excluded horse racing from the gambling law.[102]
The Bengal renaissance refers to social reform movements during the 19th and early 20th centuries in the region of Bengal inundivided India during the period of British rule. HistorianNitish Sengupta describes it as having started with reformer and humanitarianRaja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureateRabindranath Tagore (1861–1941).[103] This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historianDavid Kopf as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history".[104] These movements were most prevalent inBengali Hindu society, such as through theBrahmo Samaj. There was a growing cultural awakening inBengali Muslim society, including the emergence ofMir Mosharraf Hossain as the first Muslim novelist of Bengal;Kazi Nazrul Islam as a celebrated poet who merged Bengali and Hindustani influences;Begum Rokeya andNawab Faizunnesa as feminist educators;Kaykobad as an epic poet; and members of theFreedom of Intellect Movement.
Bengal played a major role in theIndian independence movement and thePakistan movement. The earliest organized anti-colonial groups appeared in Bengal. The region produced many of the subcontinent's political leaders during the early 20th century. Political parties and rebel groups were formed across the region.
Civic architecture began following European styles after the advent of the East India Company's authority. TheIndo-Saracenic style, mergingGothic andIndo-Islamic architecture, was started by British architects in the late 19th-century. While cities such as Calcutta and Dacca featured more civic architecture,country houses were built in many towns and villages across Bengal.Art deco influences began in the 1930s. Wealthy Bengali families (especiallyzamindar estates) employed European firms to design houses and palaces.
.jpeg)
.jpg)
Bengali society remained deeply conservative during the colonial period with the exception of social reform movements. Historians have argued that the British used a policy ofdivide and rule among Hindus and Muslims. This meant favoring Hindus over Muslims and vice versa in certain sectors. For example, after thePermanent Settlement, Hindu merchants such as theTagore family were awarded large land grants that previously belonged to the Mughal aristocracy. In Calcutta, where Hindus formed a majority, wealthy Muslims were often given favors over Hindus. One aspect that benefitted the Hindu community was increased literacy rates. Many Muslims, however, remained alienated from English education after the abolition of Persian. Bengali society continued to experience religious nationalism which led to the partition of Bengal in 1947.[citation needed]
British Bengali cities included a cosmopolitan population, including Armenians and Jews.Anglo-Indians formed a prominent part of the urban population. SeveralGentlemen's clubs were established, including theBengal Club,Calcutta Club,Dacca Club,Chittagong Club,Tollygunge Club andSaturday Club.[citation needed]
The Bengal Renaissance can be said to have started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775-1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941).
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bengal".Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
FormerBritish Empire and CurrentBritish Overseas Territories | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| |||||||||||
22°33′58″N88°20′47″E / 22.5660°N 88.3464°E /22.5660; 88.3464
