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Thebranches ofscience, also referred to assciences,scientificfields orscientific disciplines, are commonly divided into three major groups:
Scientific knowledge must be grounded in observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions.[2]
Natural, social, and formal science make up thebasic sciences, which form the basis ofinterdisciplinarity - andapplied sciences such asengineering andmedicine. Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their ownterminologies andexpertises.[3]
Theformal sciences are the branches of science that are concerned withformal systems, such aslogic,mathematics,theoretical computer science,information theory,systems theory,decision theory,statistics.
Unlike other branches, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity oftheories based onobservations in thereal world (empirical knowledge), but rather with the properties offormal systems based ondefinitions andrules. Hence there is disagreement on whether the formal sciences actually constitute as a science. Methods of the formal sciences are, however, essential to the construction and testing ofscientific models dealing with observable reality,[4] and major advances in formal sciences have often enabled major advances in theempirical sciences.
Logic (fromGreek:λογική,logikḗ, 'possessed ofreason,intellectual,dialectical,argumentative')[5][6][note 1] is the systematic study of validrules of inference, i.e. the relations that lead to the acceptance of one proposition (theconclusion) on the basis of a set of other propositions (premises). More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal ofarguments.[7]
It has traditionally included the classification of arguments; the systematic exposition of thelogical forms; thevalidity andsoundness ofdeductive reasoning; thestrength ofinductive reasoning; the study offormal proofs andinference (includingparadoxes andfallacies); and the study ofsyntax andsemantics.
Historically, logic has been studied inphilosophy (since ancient times) andmathematics (since the mid-19th century). More recently, logic has been studied incognitive science, which draws oncomputer science,linguistics,philosophy andpsychology, among other disciplines.
Information science is an academic field which is primarily concerned withanalysis, collection,classification, manipulation, storage,retrieval, movement,dissemination, and protection ofinformation. Practitioners within and outside the field study the application and the usage of knowledge inorganizations in addition to the interaction between people, organizations, and any existinginformation systems with the aim of creating, replacing, improving, or understanding the information systems.
Mathematics, in the broadest sense, is just a synonym of formal science; but traditionally mathematics means more specifically the coalition of four areas:arithmetic,algebra,geometry, andanalysis, which are, to some degree, the study of quantity, structure, space, and change respectively.
Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, and interpretation ofdata.[8][9] It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning ofdata collection in terms of the design ofsurveys andexperiments.[8]
Astatistician is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of awide number of fields. There is also a discipline calledmathematical statistics, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.
The wordstatistics, when referring to the scientific discipline, is singular, as in "Statistics is an art."[10] This should not be confused with the wordstatistic, referring to a quantity (such asmean ormedian) calculated from a set of data,[11] whose plural isstatistics ("this statistic seems wrong" or "these statistics are misleading").
Systems theory is thetransdisciplinary study ofsystems in general, to elucidate principles that can be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization ofsystems thinking and a generalization ofsystems science. The term originates fromBertalanffy'sGeneral System Theory (GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as theaction theory ofTalcott Parsons and the sociologicalautopoiesis ofNiklas Luhmann.
In this context the wordsystems is used to refer specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-correcting throughfeedback. Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including the physiological systems of the human body, in local and global ecosystems, and climate.
Decision theory (or thetheory of choice not to be confused withchoice theory) is the study of anagent's choices.[12] Decision theory can be broken into two branches:normative decision theory, which analyzes the outcomes of decisions or determines theoptimal decisions given constraints and assumptions, and descriptive decision theory, which analyzeshow agents actually make the decisions they do.
Decision theory is closely related to the field ofgame theory[13] and is an interdisciplinary topic, studied by economists, statisticians, psychologists, biologists,[14] political and other social scientists, philosophers,[15] and computer.[clarification needed]
Empirical applications of this rich theory are usually done with the help ofstatistical andeconometric methods.
Theoretical computer science (TCS) is a subset of generalcomputer science andmathematics that focuses on more mathematical topics of computing, and includes thetheory of computation.
It is difficult to circumscribe the theoretical areas precisely. TheACM's (Association for Computing Theory)Special Interest Group on Algorithms and Computation Theory (SIGACT) provides the following description:[16]
TCS covers a wide variety of topics includingalgorithms,data structures,computational complexity,parallel anddistributed computation,probabilistic computation,quantum computation,automata theory,information theory,cryptography,program semantics andverification,machine learning,computational biology,computational economics,computational geometry, andcomputational number theory andalgebra. Work in this field is often distinguished by its emphasis on mathematical technique andrigor.
Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding ofnatural phenomena, based onempirical evidence fromobservation andexperimentation. Mechanisms such aspeer review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances.
Natural science can be divided into two main branches:life science andphysical science. Life science is alternatively known asbiology, and physical science is subdivided into branches:physics,chemistry,astronomy andEarth science. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields).
Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. There is a difference between physical science and physics.
Physics (fromAncient Greek:φύσις,romanized: physis,lit. 'nature') is anatural science that involves the study ofmatter[note 2] and itsmotion throughspacetime, along with related concepts such asenergy andforce.[18] More broadly, it is the general analysis ofnature, conducted in order to understand how theuniverse behaves.[19][20][note 3]
Physics is one of the oldestacademic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion ofastronomy.[note 4] Over the last two millennia, physics was a part ofnatural philosophy along withchemistry, certain branches ofmathematics, andbiology, but during theScientific Revolution in the 16th century, thenatural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right.[note 5] Certain research areas areinterdisciplinary, such asbiophysics andquantum chemistry, which means that the boundaries of physics are notrigidly defined. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuriesphysicalism emerged as a major unifying feature of thephilosophy of science as physics provides fundamental explanations for everyobserved naturalphenomenon. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening to new research areas in mathematics and philosophy.
Chemistry (the etymology of the word has been much disputed)[note 6] is thescience ofmatter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed byphysics, but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties ofmatter, as well as the changes it undergoes duringchemical reactions.[21][22] It is aphysical science which studies varioussubstances,atoms,molecules, and matter (especially carbon based). Example sub-disciplines of chemistry include:biochemistry, the study ofsubstances found inbiological organisms;physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such asthermodynamics andquantum mechanics; andanalytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of theirchemical composition andstructure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g.neurochemistry the chemical study of thenervous system.
Earth science (also known asgeoscience,the geosciences orthe Earth sciences) is an all-embracing term for thesciences related to theplanetEarth.[23] It is arguably a special case inplanetary science, the Earth being the only knownlife-bearing planet. There are bothreductionist andholistic approaches to Earth sciences. The formal discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of theatmosphere,hydrosphere,lithosphere, andbiosphere, as well as thesolid earth. Typically Earth scientists will use tools fromphysics,chemistry,biology,geography,chronology andmathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its current state.
Geology (from theAncient Greek γῆ,gē ("earth") and -λoγία,-logia, ("study of", "discourse")[24][25]) is anEarth science concerned with thesolid Earth, therocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also include the study of the solid features of anyterrestrial planet ornatural satellite such asMars orthe Moon. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, includinghydrology and theatmospheric sciences, and so is treated as one major aspect of integratedEarth system science andplanetary science.
Oceanography, ormarine science, is the branch ofEarth science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, includingmarine organisms andecosystem dynamics;ocean currents,waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics;plate tectonics and the geology of the seafloor; andfluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it:biology,chemistry,geology,meteorology, andphysics as well asgeography.
Meteorology is theinterdisciplinary scientific study of theatmosphere. Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 17th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries. After the development of the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs inweather forecasting were achieved.
Space science is the study of everything in outer space.[26] This has sometimes been calledastronomy, but recently astronomy has come to be regarded as a division of broader space science, which has grown to include other related fields,[27] such as studying issues related tospace travel andspace exploration (includingspace medicine),space archaeology[28] and science performed inouter space (seespace research).
Life science, also known asbiology, is thenatural science that studieslife such asmicroorganisms,plants, andanimals includinghuman beings, – including theirphysical structure,chemical processes,molecular interactions,physiological mechanisms,development, andevolution.[29] Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Biology recognizes thecell as the basic unit of life,genes as the basic unit ofheredity, andevolution as the engine that propels thecreation andextinction ofspecies.Living organisms areopen systems that survive by transformingenergy and decreasing their localentropy[30] to maintain a stable and vital condition defined ashomeostasis.[31]
Biochemistry, orbiological chemistry, is the study ofchemical processes within and relating to livingorganisms.[32] It is a sub-discipline of both biology and chemistry, and from areductionist point of view it is fundamental in biology. Biochemistry is closely related tomolecular biology,cell biology,genetics, andphysiology.
Microbiology is the study ofmicroorganisms, those beingunicellular (single cell),multicellular (cell colony), oracellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines includingvirology,bacteriology,protistology,mycology,immunology andparasitology.
Botany, also calledplant science(s),plant biology orphytology, is thescience ofplant life and a branch ofbiology. Traditionally, botany has also included the study offungi andalgae bymycologists andphycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of theInternational Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000species ofland plants of which some 391,000 species arevascular plants (including approximately 369,000 species offlowering plants),[33] and approximately 20,000 arebryophytes.[34]
Zoology (/zoʊˈɒlədʒi/)[note 7] is the branch ofbiology that studies the animal kingdom, including thestructure,embryology,evolution,classification,habits, and distribution of allanimals, both living andextinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. The term is derived fromAncient Greek ζῷον,zōion, i.e. "animal" and λόγος,logos, i.e. "knowledge, study".[35] Some branches of zoology include:anthrozoology,arachnology,archaeozoology,cetology,embryology,entomology,helminthology,herpetology,histology,ichthyology,malacology,mammalogy,morphology,nematology,ornithology,palaeozoology,pathology,primatology,protozoology,taxonomy, andzoogeography.
Ecology (fromGreek:οἶκος, "house", or "environment";-λογία, "study of")[note 8] is a branch ofbiology[36] concerning interactions amongorganisms and theirbiophysical environment, which includes bothbiotic andabiotic components. Topics of interest include thebiodiversity, distribution,biomass, andpopulations of organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and betweenspecies.Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems oforganisms, thecommunities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such asprimary production,pedogenesis,nutrient cycling, andniche construction, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. Organisms with specific life history traits sustain these processes.
Social science is the branch of science devoted to the study ofsocieties and therelationships amongindividuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field ofsociology, the original "science of society", established in the 19th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array ofacademic disciplines, includinganthropology,archaeology,economics,education,history,human geography,law,linguistics,political science, andpsychology.
Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of thenatural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its strictermodern sense.Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empiricallyfalsifiable theories. In modern academic practice, researchers are ofteneclectic, using multiplemethodologies (for instance, by combining bothquantitative andqualitative research). The term "social research" has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods.
Applied science is the use of existing scientific knowledge to achieve practical goals, liketechnology or inventions.
Withinnatural science, disciplines that arebasic science develop basicinformation to explain and perhaps predict phenomena in the natural world. Applied science is the use of scientific processes and knowledge as the means to achieve a particularly practical or useful result. This includes a broad range of applied science-related fields, includingengineering andmedicine.
Applied science can also applyformal science, such asstatistics andprobability theory, as inepidemiology.Genetic epidemiology is an applied science applying both biological and statistical methods.
The relationships between the branches of science are summarized by the table[37]
| Science | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Formal science | Empirical sciences | ||
| Natural science | Social science | ||
| Foundation | |||
| Application | |||
Metascience refers to or includes a field of science that is about science itself.OpenAlex andScholia can be used to visualize and explorescientific fields and research topics.
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{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Physics is anexperimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws or principles.
Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you.