Botswana,[c] officially theRepublic of Botswana,[d] is alandlocked country in Southern Africa. Botswana is topographically flat, with approximately 70% of its territory being a part of theKalahari Desert. It is bordered bySouth Africa to the south and southeast,Namibia to the west and north,Zambia to the north, andZimbabwe to the northeast. With a population of slightly over 2.4 million people and a comparable land area to France, Botswana is one of themost sparsely populated countries in the world. It is essentially the nation-state of theTswana people, who constitute nearly 80% of the population.
The country's name means "Land of theTswana", referring to the dominantethnic group in Botswana.[13] The Constitution of Botswana recognises a homogeneous Tswana state.[14] ThedemonymBatswana was originally applied to the Tswana,[15] and has also come to be used generally as a term for all citizens of Botswana.[16] InTswana,Batswana is grammatically plural; its singular form, which can refer to a single member of the Tswana or to a single citizen of Botswana, isMotswana.
It is estimated that hominids lived in Botswana during thePleistocene time period.[17] Stone tools and animal remains indicate that all areas of the country were inhabited at least 400,000 years ago.[18]
It was claimed to have been the birthplace of allmodern humans from around 200,000 years ago.[19][20][21] Evidence left by modern humans, such as cave paintings, is about 73,000 years old.[22] The earliest known inhabitants of southern Africa are thought to have been the forebears of present-daySan ("Bushmen") andKhoi peoples. Both groups speakclick languages from the smallKhoe-Kwadi,Kx'a andTuu language families whose members hunted, gathered and traded over long distances. When cattle were first introduced into southern Africa about 2,000 years ago, pastoralism became a major feature of the economy since the region had large grasslands free oftsetse flies.[23]
Domboshaba Ruins Stone Wall(top) and clay pottery plate(bottom)
It is unclear whenBantu-speaking peoples first moved into the country from the north, although AD 600 seems to be a consensus estimate. In that era, the ancestors of the modern-dayKalanga moved into what is now the north-eastern area of the country. These proto-Kalanga were closely connected to states in Zimbabwe as well as to the Mapungubwe state. One notable remnant of this period isDomboshaba ruins, a cultural and heritage site in Botswana initially occupied towards the end of the Great Zimbabwe period (1250–1450), with stone walls that have an average height of 1.8 metres. The site is a respected place for the people living in the region, and it is believed that the chief lived on the top of the hill with his helpers or assistants. These states, located outside of current Botswana's borders, appear to have kept massive herds of cattle—apparently at numbers approaching modern cattle density—in what is now the Central District.[24] This massive cattle-raising complex prospered until around 1300 and seems to have regressed following the collapse of Mapungubwe. During this era, the first Tswana-speaking groups, theBakgalagadi, moved into the southern areas of theKalahari. These various peoples were connected to trade routes that ran via theLimpopo River to the Indian Ocean. Trade goods from Asia such as beads made their way to Botswana, most likely in exchange for ivory, gold andrhinoceros horn.[25]
TheToutswemogala Hill Iron Age settlement's radio-carbon dates range from the 7th to the late 19th century, indicating it was occupied for more than 1,000 years.[26] The hill was part of the formation of early states in southern Africa, with cattle as a major source of economy.[26] The Toutswe settlement includes house-floors, large heaps of vitrified cow dung, and burials while the outstanding structure is the stone wall.[27] Around 1000 AD, the Toutswe people moved into Botswana.[28]
However, agriculture also played a vital role in the longevity of Toutswemogala Hill's extended occupation, as many grain storage structures have also been found on the site. Many different stratified layers of housing floors further signalled continuous occupation over hundreds of years. The arrival of the Tswana speakers' ancestors who came to control the region has yet to be dated precisely. Members of theBakwena, a chieftaincy under a leader named Kgabo II, made their way into the southern Kalahari by AD 1500 at the latest, and his people drove the Bakgalagadi inhabitants west into the desert. Over the years, several offshoots of the Bakwena moved into adjoining territories. TheBangwaketse occupied areas to the west, while theBangwato moved northeast into former Kalanga areas.[29] Not long afterwards, a Bangwato offshoot known as the Batawana migrated into theOkavango Delta, probably in the 1790s.[30]
1905 German map of Southern Africa, showing the still-undividedBechuanaland area
The first written records relating to modern-day Botswana appear in 1824. These records show that the Bangwaketse had become the predominant power in the region. Under the rule of Makaba II, the Bangwaketse kept vast herds of cattle in well-protected desert areas, and used their military prowess to raid their neighbours.[31] By this time, other chiefdoms in the area had capitals of 10,000 or so and were fairly prosperous.[32] This equilibrium came to end during theMfecane period (1823–1843) when a succession of invading peoples from South Africa entered the country. Although the Bangwaketse were able to defeat the invadingBakololo in 1826, over time all the major chiefdoms in Botswana were attacked, weakened and impoverished. The Bakololo andAmaNdebele raided repeatedly and took large numbers of cattle, women and children from the Batswana – most of whom were driven into the desert or sanctuary areas such as hilltops and caves. Only after 1843, when the Amandebele moved into western Zimbabwe, did this threat subside.[33]
Sechele I, who led a Batswana Merafe Coalition againstBoers in 1852
During the 1840s and 1850s, trade withCape Colony-based merchants opened up and enabled theBatswana chiefdoms to rebuild. TheBakwena, Bangwaketse, Bangwato and Batawana cooperated to control the lucrative ivory trade and used the proceeds to import horses and guns, which in turn enabled them to establish control over what is now Botswana. This process was largely complete by 1880, and the Batswana thus subjugated the Bushmen, Kalanga, Bakgalagadi and other current minorities.[34]
Following theGreat Trek,Afrikaners from the Cape Colony established themselves on the borders of Botswana in theTransvaal. In 1852, a coalition ofTswana chiefdoms led bySechele I defeated Afrikaner incursions at theBattle of Dimawe and, after about eight years of intermittent tensions and hostilities, eventually came to a peace agreement inPotchefstroom in 1860. From that point on, the modern-day border between South Africa and Botswana was agreed on, and the Afrikaners and Batswana traded and worked together comparatively peacefully.[35][36]
In 1884, Batawana, a northern-based Tswana clan's cavalry under the command of Kgosi Moremi, fought and defeated the Ndebele's invasion of northern Botswana at theBattle of Khutiyabasadi. This was the start of the collapse of the Ndebele Kingdom in Zimbabwe, and it helped the Tswana speaking authority.[37]
Due to newly peaceful conditions, trade thrived between 1860 and 1880. Christianmissionaries were able to take advantage of this. TheLutherans and theLondon Missionary Society both became established in the country by 1856. By 1880, every major village had a resident missionary, and their influence slowly grew.Khama III, who reigned from 1875 to 1923, was the first of the Tswana chiefs to make Christianity a state religion, and a great deal of Tswana customary law changed as a result. Christianity became the de facto official religion in all the chiefdoms byWorld War I.[38]
During theScramble for Africa, both theGerman Empire and Britain coveted the territory of Botswana. During theBerlin Conference, Britain decided to annexe Botswana to safeguard the Road to the North and thus connect the Cape Colony to its territories further north. It unilaterally annexed Tswana territories in January 1885 and then sent theWarren Expedition north to consolidate control over the area and convince the chiefs to accept British overrule. Despite their misgivings, they eventually acquiesced to thisfait accompli.[39][40]
In 1890, areas north of 22 degrees were added to the new Bechuanaland Protectorate. During the 1890s, the new territory was divided into eight different reserves, with fairly small amounts of land being left as freehold for whitesettlers. During the early 1890s, the British government decided to hand over the Bechuanaland Protectorate to theBritish South Africa Company. This plan, which was well on its way to fruition despite the entreaties of Tswana leaders who toured England in protest, was eventually foiled by the failure of theJameson Raid in January 1896.[41][42]
When theUnion of South Africa was formed from the main British colonies in the region in 1910, the High Commission Territories—the Bechuanaland Protectorate,Basutoland (nowLesotho) andSwaziland (nowEswatini)—were not included, but provision was made for their later incorporation. However, the UK began to consult with their inhabitants as to their wishes. Although successive South African governments sought to have the territories transferred to their jurisdiction, the UK kept delaying; consequently, it never occurred. The election of theNationalist government in 1948, which institutedapartheid, and South Africa's withdrawal from theCommonwealth in 1961, ended any prospect of the UK or these territories agreeing to incorporation into South Africa.[43]
An expansion of British central authority and the evolution of native government resulted in the 1920 establishment of two advisory councils to represent both Africans and Europeans.[44] The African Council consisted of the eight heads of the Tswana tribes and some elected members.[44] Proclamations in 1934 regulated tribal rule and powers. A European-African advisory council was formed in 1951, and the 1961 constitution established a consultative legislative council.[45]
In June 1964, the United Kingdom accepted proposals for a democratic self-government in Botswana. An independence conference was held in London in February 1966.[46] The seat of government was moved in 1965 fromMahikeng in South Africa, to the newly establishedGaborone, located near Botswana's border with South Africa. Based on the 1965 constitution, the country held its first general elections under universal suffrage and gained independence on 30 September 1966.[47]Sir Seretse Khama, a leader in the independence movement,[48] was elected as the first president, and subsequently re-elected twice.[49]
Khama died in office in 1980. The presidency passed to the sitting vice-president,Quett Masire, who was elected in his own right in 1984 and re-elected in 1989 and 1994. Masire retired from office in 1998. He was succeeded byFestus Mogae, who was elected in 1999 and re-elected in 2004. The presidency passed in 2008 toIan Khama (son of the first president), who had been serving as Mogae's vice-president since resigning his position as Commander of theBotswana Defence Force in 1998 to take up this civilian role. On 1 April 2018,Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi was sworn in as the fifth president of Botswana, succeeding Ian Khama.[50] A long-running dispute over the northern border withNamibia'sCaprivi Strip was the subject of a ruling by theInternational Court of Justice in December 1999. It ruled thatKasikili Island belongs to Botswana.[51]
The Botswana Democratic Party governed the country without interruption from the inaugural 1965 election until the2024 general election, which was won by theUmbrella for Democratic Change.[52] On 1 November 2024,Duma Boko, the leader of the UDC, was sworn in as president of Botswana, becoming the first president not to represent the BDP.[53]
At 581,730 km2 (224,607 sq mi), Botswana is the world's 48th-largest country.[55] It also has a mean altitude of roughly 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) above sea level.[56][57] Botswana is predominantly flat, tending towards gently rollingtableland.[58] Botswana is dominated by theKalahari Desert, which covers up to 70% of its land surface.[59]
Botswana has diverse areas of wildlife habitat.[63] In addition to the delta and desert areas, there aregrasslands andsavannas.[63] Northern Botswana has one of the few remaining large populations of the endangeredAfrican wild dog.[64]Chobe National Park in theChobe District has the world's largest concentration ofAfrican elephants. The park covers about 11,000 km2 (4,247 sq mi) and supports about 350 species of birds.[65] Botswana is part of the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA), along with Zimbabwe, Zambia, Namibia and Angola. Part of the agreement allows for the free movement of wildlife between the participating countries. 6 "wildlife dispersal areas" have been identified based on the historical migratory routes of wildlife[66]
In Botswanaforest cover is around 27% of the total land area, equivalent to 15,254,700 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 18,803,700 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 15,254,700 hectares, of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to beprimary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 11% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 24% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership and 76%private ownership.[67][68]
Botswana faces two majorenvironmental problems, drought anddesertification, which are heavily linked. Three-quarters of the country's human and animal populations depend on groundwater due to drought.Groundwater use through deep borehole drilling has somewhat eased the effects of drought. Surface water is scarce in Botswana, and less than 5% of the agriculture in the country is sustainable by rainfall. In the remaining 95% of the country, raising livestock is the primary source of rural income. Approximately 71% of the country's land is used for communal grazing, which has been a major cause of the desertification and the accelerating soil erosion in the country.[71]
Since raising livestock has been profitable for the people of Botswana, they continue to exploit the land with dramatically increasing numbers of animals. From 1966 to 1991, the livestock population grew from 1.7million to 5.5million.[71] Similarly, the human population has increased from 574,000 in 1971 to 1.5million in 1995, a 161% increase in 24years.[72] Environmentalists report that the Okavango Delta is drying up due to increased livestock grazing.[73] The Okavango Delta is one of the major semi-forested wetlands in Botswana and one of the largest inland deltas in the world; the ecosystem is crucial to the survival of many animals.[73]
The Department of Forestry and Range Resources has already begun to implement a project to reintroduce indigenous vegetation into communities in Kgalagadi South, Kweneng North and Boteti.[74] Reintroduction of indigenous vegetation will help reduce the degradation of the land. TheUnited States Government has also entered into an agreement with Botswana, giving them US$7 million to reduce Botswana's debt by US$8.3 million. The US stipulated that Botswana will focus on more extensiveconservation of the land.[73] The country had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.13/10, ranking it 8th globally out of 172 countries.[75]
TheUnited Nations Development Programme (UNDP) claims that poverty is a major problem behind theoverexploitation of resources, including land, in Botswana. The UNDP joined in with a project started in the southern community of Struizendam in Botswana. The project's purpose is to draw from "indigenous knowledge and traditional land management systems". The leaders of this movement are supposed to be the people in the community to draw indigenous people in, which in turn increases their opportunities to earn an income, thus decreasing poverty. The UNDP also stated that the government has to effectively implement policies to allow people to manage their own local resources and the programme is giving the government information to help with policy development.[76]
Botswana is aparliamentary republic governed by theConstitution of Botswana.[77] It is the longest uninterrupted democracy in Africa.[78] Its seat of government is inGaborone.[79] Botswana's governing institutions were established after it became an independent nation in 1966. Botswana's governmental structure is based on both the United Kingdom'sWestminster system and the Tswana people's tribal governments.[77] Botswana has acentralised government in which national law supersedes local law.[80] Local laws are developed by local councils and district councils.[81] They are heavily influenced by tribal governments, which are led by the tribe's chief.[81]
TheParliament of Botswana consists of the President and theNational Assembly, which serves as the nation's formal and sole legislature, while theNtlo ya Dikgosi serves an advisory body made up of tribal chiefs and other appointed members.[82] Botswana's executive branch is led by thePresident of Botswana, who serves as both thehead of state andhead of government.[77] The members of parliament choose the president,[83] and the president then appoints thevice-president andcabinet members.[84] The president has significant power in Botswana, and the legislature has little power tocheck the president once appointed.[83][85] The judiciary includes theHigh Court of Botswana, the Court of Appeal and Magistrates' Courts.[86] Cases are often settled by customary courts with tribal chiefs presiding.[81]
Elections in Botswana are held every five years and overseen by theIndependent Electoral Commission (IEC).[87] Botswana operates amulti-party system in whichmany political parties compete in elections.[78] It was adominant-party state in which theBotswana Democratic Party had ruled with a majority government from independence in 1966 to 2024.[88][89] The nation's elections are recognised asfree and fair, but the ruling party has institutional advantages that other parties do not.[87][90]Factionalism is common within Botswana's political parties, and several groups have formed new parties by splitting from established ones.[78] Since 2019, theUmbrella for Democratic Change has operated as a coalition of opposition parties.[91] The most recent election was heldin 2024, with the Botswana Democratic Party losing its majority for the first time in history, ending its 58-year rule over the country. The election sawDuma Boko being elected as president.[92]
In Botswana's early years, its politics were managed by PresidentSeretse Khama and vice-president (later president)Quett Masire.[93] Since theKgabo Commission in 1991, factionalism and political rivalries have dominated Botswana politics. TheBarata-Phathi faction was led byPeter Mmusi,Daniel Kwelagobe andPonatshego Kedikilwe, while theA Team faction was led byMompati Merafhe and Jacob Nkate.[94][95] WhenFestus Mogae andIan Khama became president and vice-president, respectively, they aligned with the A Team. Khama effectively expelled the A Team from the party in 2010 after he became president.[95] A new rivalry formed in 2018 when Khama's chosen successor, Mokgweetsi Masisi, became president. He opposed Khama, and the two formed a political rivalry that continues to loom over Batswana politics in the 2020s.[96]
Botswana was ranked as a "flawed democracy" and 33rd out of 167 states in the 2023Democracy Index (The Economist), which was the second-highest rating in Africa, and the highest ranking in continental Africa (only the offshore island nation ofMauritius bested its ranking).[97] However, according to the 2024V-Dem Democracy Indices, Botswana has been experiencing an episode ofdemocratic backsliding over the past 10 years, recording its lowest ever score on the indices. The indices classify Botswana as an electoral democracy in a 'grey zone' between electoral democracy andelectoral autocracy. Furthermore, they show that Botswana lost its status as a "liberal democracy" in 2021, with its liberal, participatory and deliberative components decreasing "at a statistically significant level", with the latter component being noted as becoming "significantly worse".[98]
Following political changes in South Africa and the region, the BDF's missions have increasingly focused on preventingpoaching,preparing for disasters, and supporting foreignpeacekeeping. The United States has been the largest single foreign contributor to the development of theBDF, and a large segment of its officer corps have received US training. The Botswana government gave the United States permission to explore the possibility of establishing an Africa Command (AFRICOM) base in the country.[104]
Botswana is the 50th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.[105]
TheBotswana Centre for Human Rights, Ditshwanelo, was established in 1993.[106] Until June 2019,homosexual acts were illegal in Botswana. A Botswana High Court decision of 11 June of that year struck down provisions in the Criminal Code that punished "carnal knowledge of any person against the order of nature" and "acts of gross indecency", making Botswana one of 22 African countries that have eitherdecriminalised orlegalised homosexual acts.[107]Capital punishment is a legal penalty for murder in Botswana, and executions are carried out by hanging.[108]
Many of the indigenousSan people have been forcibly relocated from their land to reservations. To make them relocate, they were denied access to water on their land and faced arrest if they hunted, which was their primary source of food.[109] Their lands lie in the middle of the world's richest diamond field. Officially, the government denies that there is any link to mining, claiming the relocation is to preserve the wildlife and ecosystem, even though the San people have lived sustainably on the land for millennia.[109] On the reservations, they struggle to find employment, and alcoholism is rampant.[109]
On 24 August 2018, theUN Special Rapporteur on Minorities, Fernand de Varennes, issued a statement calling on Botswana "to step up efforts to recognise and protect the rights of minorities in relation to public services, land and resource use, and the use ofminority languages in education and other critical areas."[110]
Districts of Botswana in 1977Districts and subdistricts of Botswana
Botswana is divided into 10 administrative districts, 2 city districts, 4 towns,[111] 11 sub-districts and, in total, 16 administrative divisions.[111] They are:
These are administered by 16 local authorities (district councils, city councils or town councils).[112][113]
In 1977, Botswana's administrative divisions were Ngamiland, Chobe, Francistown, Ngwato, Tuli, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi, Ngwaketse, Kweneng, Gaborone and Lobatse.[114] In 2006, Chobe was removed from being an administrative division, and Ngamiland's name was changed to North West district. Chobe was readded on 31 March 2014. That same day, the administrative divisions Francistown, Gaborone, Jwaneng, Lobatse, Selibe Phikwe, and Sowa Town were also added.[111]
Since independence, Botswana has had one of the fastest growth rates in per capita income in the world.[115] Formerly one of the world's poorest countries—with a GDP per capita of about US$70 per year in the late 1960s[116]—Botswana has transformed itself into an upper middle-income country. GDP per capita grew from $439 in 1950 to $15,842 in 2018.[117] Although Botswana was resource-abundant, a good institutional framework allowed the country to reinvest resource-income to generate stable future income.[118] By one estimate, it has the fourth-highestgross national income atpurchasing power parity in Africa, giving it a relatively high standard of living in Africa, around that of Mexico.[119] As of 2022, the unemployment rate stood at 25.4%, while youth unemployment reached 45.41% in 2023.[120][121] The latest available data from 2015/2016 estimate that 17.2% of Botswana's population ismultidimensionally poor, with an additional 19.7% at risk.[122]
The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government respects this in practice. The legal system is sufficient to conduct secure commercial dealings, although a growing backlog of cases prevents timely trials. Botswana is ranked second only to South Africa among sub-Saharan African countries in the 2014 International Property Rights Index.[125]
In Botswana, the Department of Mines and Mineral Resources, Green Technology and Energy Security maintains data regarding mining throughout the country.[127][128]Debswana, the largestdiamond mining company operating in Botswana, is a joint venture, 50% owned by the government.[129]
The mineral industry provides about 40% of all government revenues.[130] Botswana has not begun mining uranium; however, the Letlhakane Uranium Project in Africa is one of the largest undeveloped uranium projects.[131] The government announced in early 2009 that they would try to diversify their economy and avoid overreliance on diamonds.[132]
The Botswana Tourism Organisation is the country's official tourism group.[133] Other destinations in Botswana include the Gaborone Yacht Club and the Kalahari Fishing Club. The country has natural attractions such as theGaborone Dam andMokolodi Nature Reserve. There aregolf courses that the Botswana Golf Union (BGU) maintains.[134] In 2014, theOkavango Delta of Botswana, the largest inland delta in the world, was inscribed as the 1,000thWorld Heritage Site.[135]
Botswana has 971 kilometres (603 mi) of railway lines, 18,443.8 kilometres (11,460.4 mi) of roads, and 92 airports, of which 12 have paved runways. Of these roads, 7,383.2 kilometres (4,587.7 mi) are paved, while the other 11,060.6 kilometres (6,872.7 mi) are unpaved.[136] The national airline isAir Botswana, which flies domestically and to other countries in Africa.Botswana Railways is the national railway company, operating primarily in the Southern African regional railway system. Botswana Railways offers rail-based transport facilities for moving a range of commodities for the mining sector and primary materials industries, as well as passenger train services and dry ports.[137][138]
In terms of power infrastructure in Botswana, the country produces coal for electricity and imports oil. Recently, the country has taken a large interest in renewable energy sources and has designed a comprehensive strategy to attract investors in the wind, solar and biomass renewable energy industries. Botswana's power stations includeMorupule B Power Station (600 MW),Morupule A Power Station (132 MW),Orapa Power Station (90 MW),Phakalane Power Station (1.3 MW) andMmamabula Power Station (300 MW), which is expected to be online in the near future. A 200-MWsolar power plant is in the planning and design stage at the Ministry of Mineral Resources, Green Technology and Energy Security.[139][140]
As of 2024, theTswana are the majority ethnic group in Botswana, making up approximately 79% of the population, followed byKalanga at 11% andthe San (Basarwa) at 3%. The remaining 7% consists ofWhite Batswana/European Batswana,[141]Indians,[2] and a number of other smaller Southern African ethnic groups.
Native groups include theBayei, Bambukushu,Basubia, Baherero andBakgalagadi. The Indian minority is made up of both recent migrants and descendants of Indian migrants who arrived fromMozambique,Kenya,Tanzania,Mauritius and South Africa.[142]
Population pyramid of Botswana, 2016
Since 2000, because of deteriorating economic conditions inZimbabwe, the number ofZimbabweans in Botswana has risen into the tens of thousands.[143] Fewer than 10,000San people are still living their traditionalhunter-gatherer way of life. Since the mid-1990s, the central government of Botswana has been trying to move the San out of their historic lands, likely because they live on a diamond-rich region.[144]
In 2010,James Anaya, as the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous people for the United Nations, described loss of land as a major contributor to many of the problems facing Botswana's indigenous people, citing the San's eviction from theCentral Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR)[145] as a special example.[146]: 2 Among Anaya's recommendations in a report to theUnited Nations Human Rights Council was that development programmes should promote, in consultation with indigenous communities such as the San and Bakgalagadi people, activities in harmony with the culture of those communities such as traditional hunting and gathering activities.[146]: 19
The official language of Botswana is English, whileSetswana is widely spoken across the country.[1] In Setswana,prefixes are more important than they are in many other languages, because Setswana is aBantu language and has noun classes denoted by these prefixes. They includeBo, which refers to the country,Ba, which refers to the people,Mo, which is one person, andSe which is the language. For example, the main ethnic group of Botswana is the Tswana people, hence the name Botswana for its country. The people as a whole are Batswana, one person is a Motswana, and the language they speak is Setswana.[148][149]
Other languages spoken in Botswana includeKalanga (Sekalanga),Sarwa (Sesarwa),Ndebele, Kgalagadi, Tswapong,!Xóõ, Yeyi, and, in some parts,Afrikaans.[150]
According to the 2001 census, the nation has around 5,000Muslims (mainly from South Asia), 3,000Hindus, and 700 of theBaháʼí Faith. Approximately 20% of citizens identify withno religion.[151]
Botswana's healthcare system has been steadily improving and expanding.[152] Specifically, infant mortality and maternal mortality rates are steadily declining.[153] Eighty-five per cent of the population live within a five-kilometre (3.1 mi) radius of a health facility. Seventy-three per cent of pregnant women access antenatal care services at least four times. Almost 100 per cent of births in Botswana take place in hospitals.[152]
The Ministry of Health[154] in Botswana is responsible for overseeing the quality and distribution of healthcare throughout the country.Life expectancy at birth was 55 in 2009 according to the World Bank, having previously fallen from a peak of 64.1 in 1990 to a low of 49 in 2002.[155] Since Botswana's 2011 census, current life expectancy is estimated at 54.06 years.[2]
TheCancer Association of Botswana is a voluntary non-governmental organisation that is a member of the Union for International Cancer Control. The Association supplements existing services through provision of cancer prevention and health awareness programs, facilitating access to health services for cancer patients and offering support and counselling to those affected.[156] Botswana's 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI) score is 20.7.[157]
Life expectancy in select Southern African countries, 1950–2019.HIV/AIDS has caused a decline in life expectancy.
Like elsewhere in Sub-Saharan Africa, theeconomic impact of AIDS is considerable. Economic development spending was cut by 10% in 2002–2003 as a result of recurring budget deficits and rising expenditures on healthcare services. Botswana has been hit very hard by theAIDS pandemic; in 2006, it was estimated that life expectancy at birth had dropped from 65 to 35 years.[158] The life expectancy is 66.4 years as of 2024.[13]
In 2003, the government began a comprehensive programme involving free or cheap genericantiretroviral drugs as well as an information campaign designed to stop the spread of the virus; in 2013, over 40% of adults in Botswana had access to antiretroviral therapy.[159]: 28 In the 15–19 age group, prevalence was estimated at 6% for females and 3.5% for males in 2013,[159]: 33 and for the 20–24 age group, 15% for females and 5% for males.[159]: 33 Botswana is one of 21 priority countries identified by the UN AIDS group in 2011 in the Global Plan to eliminate new HIV infections among children and to keep their mothers alive.[159]: 37 From 2009 to 2013, the country saw a decrease of over 50% in new HIV infections in children.[159]: 38 Less than 10% of pregnant HIV-infected women were not receiving antiretroviral medications in 2013, with a large, corresponding decrease (over 50%) in the number of new HIV infections in children under five.[159]: 39, 40 Among the UN Global Plan countries, people living with HIV in Botswana have the highest percentage receiving antiretroviral treatment: about 75% for adults (age 15+) and about 98% for children.[159]: 237
The country has been adversely affected by theHIV/AIDS epidemic. In 2002, Botswana became the first country to offeranti-retroviral drugs (ARVs) to help combat the epidemic.[160] Despite the launch of programmes to make treatment available and to educate the populace about the epidemic,[161] the number of people with AIDS rose from 290,000 in 2005 to 320,000 in 2013.[159]: A20 However, in recent years, the country has made strides in combating HIV/AIDS, with efforts being made to provide proper treatment and lower the rate of mother-to-child transmission.[162][163]
With a nationwide Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission programme, Botswana has reduced HIV transmission from infected mothers to their children from about 40% in 2003 to 4% in 2010. Under the leadership ofFestus Mogae, the government of Botswana solicited outside help in curing people with HIV/AIDS and received early support from theBill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Merck Foundation, which together formed the African Comprehensive HIV/AIDS Partnership (ACHAP). Other early partners include theBotswana–Harvard AIDS Institute of theHarvard School of Public Health and the Botswana–UPenn Partnership of theUniversity of Pennsylvania. According to the 2011 UNAIDS Report, universal access to treatment—defined as 80% coverage or greater—has been achieved in Botswana.[164]
Folklore musician Sereetsi(top) and traditional basket(bottom)
Botswana's music is mostly vocal and performed, sometimes without drums depending on the occasion; it also makes heavy use of string instruments. Botswana folk music has instruments such as setinkane (a sort of miniature piano), segankure/segaba (a Motswana version of the Chinese instrumenterhu), moropa (meropa for plural) and phala (a whistle used mostly during celebrations). The hands are sometimes used as musical instruments too, by either clapping them together or againstphathisi (goat skin turned inside out wrapped around the calf area, only used by men) to create music and rhythm. The national anthem is "Fatshe leno la rona", which was written and composed by Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete; it was adopted upon independence in 1966.[165][166][167]
In the northern part of Botswana, women in the villages of Etsha andGumare are noted for their skill at crafting baskets frommokola palm and localdyes. The baskets are generally woven into three types: large, lidded baskets used for storage; large, open baskets for carrying objects on the head or for winnowing threshed grain; and smaller plates for winnowing pounded grain. These baskets steadily use colour.[168]
The oldest paintings from both Botswana and South Africa depict hunting, animal and human figures, and were made by the Khoisan (Kung San/Bushmen) over 20,000 years ago within theKalahari Desert.[169]
The national dish isseswaa, pounded meat made from goat meat or beef, orSegwapa dried, cured meat ranging from beef to game meats, either fillets of meat cut into strips following the grain of the muscle, or flat pieces sliced across the grain. Botswana's cuisine shares some characteristics with other cuisine of southern Africa.[170]
Examples of Botswana food are:bogobe,pap (maize porridge),boerewors,samp,Magwinya andmopane worms. Bogobe is made by putting sorghum, maize or millet flour into boiling water, stirring it into a soft paste, and cooking it slowly. A dish calledting is made when milk and sugar is added to fermented sorghum or maize. Ting without the milk and sugar is sometimes eaten with meat or vegetables for lunch or dinner. Another way of making bogobe is to add sour milk and a cooking melon (lerotse). The Kalanga tribe calls this dishtophi. Madila is a traditional fermented milk product similar toyogurt orsour cream.[171]
In 2011,Amantle Montsho becameworld champion in the 400 metres and won Botswana's first athletics medal at the world level. High jumperKabelo Kgosiemang is a three-timeAfrican champion.Isaac Makwala is a sprinter who specialises in the 400 metres who was the gold medalist at the Commonwealth Games in 2018.Baboloki Thebe was a silver medalist in the 200 metres at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics and reached the semi-finals at the 2014 World Junior Championships in Athletics. Ross Branch Ross, a motor-biker, holds the number one place in the South African Cross Country Championship and has competed at the Dakar Rally.Letsile Tebogo set theworld junior record in the100 metres with a time of 9.94 at the2022 World Athletics Championships,[174] and, as of 2024, holds the 100-metre and 300-metre world's third-best time of 30.69 seconds.[175] On 7 August 2021, Botswana won the bronze medal in the Men's4 × 400 metres relay at the Olympics in Tokyo. Botswana was the first African nation to host theNetball World Youth Cup.[176][177] On 8 August 2024,Letsile Tebogo won Botswana's first-ever Olympic gold medal at the2024 Paris Olympics after finishing in first place in themen's 200m final, finishing with a time of 19.46 seconds.[178]
The card gamebridge has a strong following; it was first played in Botswana around 40 years ago, and it grew in popularity during the 1980s. Many British expatriate school teachers informally taught the game in Botswana's secondary schools. The Botswana Bridge Federation (BBF) was founded in 1988. Bridge has remained popular and the BBF has over 800 members.[179] In 2007, the BBF invited theEnglish Bridge Union to host a week-long teaching programme in May 2008.[180]
Botswana has made educational progress since independence in 1966 when there were only 22 university graduates in the country[181] and only a very small percentage of the population attended secondary school. Botswana increased its adult literacy rate from 69% in 1991 to 83% in 2008.[182] Among sub-Saharan African countries, Botswana has one of the highest literacy rates.[183] As of 2024, 88.5% of the population aged 15 and over could read and write and were respectively literate.[183]
TheBotswana Ministry of Education[184] is working to establish libraries in primary schools in partnership with theAfrican Library Project.[185] TheGovernment of Botswana hopes that investing a large part of national income in education will make the country less dependent on diamonds for its economic survival, and less dependent on expatriates for its skilled workers.[186] NPVET (National Policy on Vocational Education and Training) introduced policies in favour of vocational education.[186] Botswana invests 21% of its government spending in education.[182]
In January 2006, Botswana announced the reintroduction of school fees after two decades of free state education,[187] though the government still provides full scholarships with living expenses to any Botswana citizen in university, either at theUniversity of Botswana or, if the student wishes to pursue an education in any field not offered locally, they are provided with a full scholarship to study abroad.[188]
In 2015, Botswana planned to use science and technology to diversify its economy and thereby reduce its dependence on diamond mining.[189] Botswana published its updatedNational Policy on Research, Science and Technology in 2011, within a UNESCO project sponsored by the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation and Development (AECID). This policy was formulated in strategic documents that include Botswana'sTenth National Development Plan for 2016 andVision 2016.[189] TheNational Policy on Research, Science, Technology and Innovation (2011) sets the target of raising gross domestic expenditure onresearch and development (R&D) from 0.26% of GDP in 2012 to over 2% of GDP by 2016. This target can only be reached within the specified time frame by raising public spending on R&D.[189] Botswana counts one of the highest researcher densities in sub-Saharan Africa: 344 per million inhabitants (in head counts), compared to an average of 91 per million inhabitants for the subcontinent in 2013.[189] Botswana was ranked 87th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[190]
In 2009, Botswana-based company Deaftronics launched a solar-powered hearing aid after six years of prototype development. Since then, Deaftronics has sold over 10,000 of the hearing aids. Priced at $200 per unit, each hearing aid includes fourrechargeable batteries (lasting up to three years) and asolar charger for them. The product is inexpensive compared to many similar devices, which can start at around $600.[191][192]
In 2011, Botswana's Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) unveiled Musi cattle, designed to optimise beef production. As a hybrid of theTswana,Bonsmara,Brahman,Tuli andSimmental breeds,[193] it is hoped that the composite will lead to increased beef production.[194] In 2016, the Botswana Institute of Technology Research and Innovation (BITRI) developed a rapid testing kit forfoot-and-mouth disease in collaboration with the Botswana Vaccine Institute andCanadian Food Inspection Agency. The kit developed in Botswana allows for on-site diagnosis.[195]
TheSquare Kilometre Array (SKA) (MeerKAT) consists of thousands of dishes and antennas spread over large distances linked together to form one giant telescope. Additional dishes will be located in eight other African countries, Botswana among them. Botswana was selected to participate because of its ideal location in the southern hemisphere and environment, which could enable easier data collection from the universe. The Botswana government has built the SKA precursor telescope at Kgale View, which is the African Very Long Base Line Interferometry Network (AVN). It sent students on astronomy scholarships.[196]
Botswana launched its three-year programme to build and launch a Satellite, Botswana Satellite Technology (Sat-1 Project) in Gaborone on 18 December 2020, which was launched using a SpaceX rocket on 15 March.Botswana International University of Science and Technology (BIUST) led satellite development, with technical support from other partners, and is a 3U hyperspectral Earth Observation satellite. The satellite is intended to provide data for environmental monitoring, precision agriculture, urban planning, and disaster management.[197][198] In 2016, for theIT sector, Almaz opened a first-of-its-kind computer assembly company.[199][200] Ditec, a Botswana company, also customises, designs and manufactures mobile phones. Ditec specialises in customisingMicrosoft-powered devices.[201]
On 19 November 2021, scientists at the Botswana Harvard HIV Reference Laboratory (BHHRL) first discovered theCOVID-19 Omicron variant, subsequently designated B.1.1.529, and then named "Omicron", becoming the first country in the world to discover the variant. Since early 2021, they have genome-sequenced some 2,300 positive SARS-CoV-2 virus samples. According to Dr. Gaseitsiwe, Botswana's genome sequence submissions to GISAID are among the highest in the African region on a per capita basis, on a par with its well-resourced neighbour South Africa. Botswana Harvard AIDS Institute Partnership (BHP) was built in 2003, two years after the umbrella organisation opened the BHHRL, its purpose-built HIV research lab which was one of the first on the continent.[202]
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