Borscht (English:/ˈbɔːrʃt/ⓘ) is asour soup, made with meatstock, vegetables and seasonings, common inEastern Europe andNorthern Asia. In English, the wordborscht is most often associated with the soup's variant ofUkrainian origin, made with redbeetroots as one of the main ingredients, which give the dish its distinctive red color. The same name, however, is also used for a wide selection of sour-tasting soups without beetroots, such assorrel-basedgreen borscht,rye-basedwhite borscht, andcabbage borscht.
Borscht derives from an ancient soup originally cooked from pickled stems, leaves andumbels ofcommon hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium), anherbaceous plant growing in damp meadows, which lent the dish itsSlavic name. With time, it evolved into a diverse array of tart soups, among which the Ukrainian beet-based red borscht has become the most popular. It is typically made by combining meat or bonestock withsautéed vegetables, which—as well as beetroots—usually include cabbage, carrots, onions, potatoes, and tomatoes. Depending on the recipe, borscht may include meat or fish, or be purely vegetarian; it may be served either hot or cold, and it may range from a hearty one-pot meal to a clear broth or a smooth drink. It is often served withsmetana orsour cream, hard-boiled eggs or potatoes, but there exists an ample choice of more involvedgarnishes and side dishes, such asuszka orpampushky, that can be served with the soup.
Its popularity has spread throughoutEastern Europe and—by way of migration away from theRussian Empire—to other continents. InNorth America, borscht is often linked with either Jews orMennonites, the groups who first brought it there fromEurope. Several ethnic groups claim borscht, in its various local implementations, as their ownnational dish consumed as part of ritual meals withinGreek Catholic,Roman Catholic, and Jewish religious traditions.
Etymology
The English name derives, throughYiddish, from Ukrainian and Russianбо́рщ (borshch,Ukrainian:[ˈbɔrʃt͡ʃ]ⓘ,Russian:[ˈborɕː]ⓘ).[3][4][5] Together withcognates in other Slavic languages, such as Belarusian:бо́ршч (borshch), Polish:barszcz, and others, it comes fromProto-Slavicbъ̃rščь,[6][7] 'hogweed', and ultimately fromProto-Indo-European*bʰr̥stis, 'point', 'stubble'.[8][9][10]Common hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium) was the soup's principal ingredient[11] before it was replaced with other vegetables, notably beetroot in the Ukrainian version.[citation needed]
Borscht can include beef, pork, beets, other vegetables, herbs, and spices
The stock is typically made by boiling meat, bones, or both.Beef,pork or a combination of both are most commonly used, withbrisket,ribs,shank andchuck considered to give the most flavorful results, especially if cooked on a high flame.Marrow bones are considered best for the bone stock. Meat stock is usually cooked for about two hours, whereas bone stock takes four to six hours to prepare. Meat and bones are usually removed afterwards and the meat is only added back into the soup about 10–15 minutes before the borscht is done. Some recipes call forsmoked meats, resulting in a distinctively smoky borscht, while others use poultry or mutton stock.Fasting varieties are typically made withfish stock to avoid the use of meat, while purelyvegetarian recipes often substitute forestmushroom broth for the stock.[14]
Borscht cooked in a clay pot inside aRussian oven in thePoltava region in central UkraineGirls grating beetroots to make borscht for a large group.
The vegetables most commonly added to borscht are beetroots,white cabbage,carrots,parsley root,potatoes,onions andtomatoes. Some recipes may also call forbeans,tart apples,turnip,swede,celeriac,zucchini orbell peppers.[15]Parsnip may be used as a substitute for parsley root, andtomato paste is often used as well as or instead of fresh tomatoes.[16] Onions, carrots, parsley root, turnip and other root vegetables are sautéed (traditionally in animal fat, especiallylard orbutter) and then mixed with tomatoes or tomato paste. Dry beans are boiled separately. Potatoes and cabbage are boiled in the stock for about 15 minutes before the precooked vegetables are added.[17]
The traditional technique of preparing the soup is to precook the vegetables—by sautéing,braising,boiling orbaking—separately from the meat and only then to combine them with the stock. This distinctive feature of borscht derives from the practice ofslow cooking in theRussian oven (traditionalmasonry stove, used for both cooking and heating), wherein the differences in cooking times of individual ingredients had to be taken into account in order to ensure that all components reach doneness at the same time. The importance of this method is reflected in the Russian language, where a variant in which all vegetables are added raw directly into the stock is referred to by the diminutive formborshchok[a] rather thanborshch.[18]
The soup is typically flavored with a wide selection of herbs, spices and condiments.Salt,black pepper,garlic,bay leaves anddill are among the most commonly used. Other aromatics often added to borscht includeallspice,celery stalks,parsley,marjoram,hot peppers,saffron, horseradish,ginger andprunes. Some recipes require flour orroux to further thicken the borscht. A common opinion is that a good borscht should be thick enough for a spoon to stand upright in it.[16][19]
Beet sour
The dominant tastes in borscht are sweet and sour. This combination is traditionally obtained by adding beet sour.[18] The sour is made by covering sliced beetroots with lukewarm preboiled water and allowingbacteria toferment some of thesugars present in beetroots intodextran (which gives the liquid a slightly viscous consistency),mannitol,acetic acid andlactic acid.[20] Stalerye bread is often added to hasten the process, but usually omitted in Jewish recipes, aschametz (leavened bread) would make the sour unfit forPassover meals. Sugar, salt and lemon juice may also be added to balance the flavor. After about 2–5 days (or 2–3 weeks without the bread), the deep red, sweet and sour liquid may be strained and is ready to use. It is added to borscht shortly before the soup is done, as prolonged boiling would cause the tart flavor to dissipate.[16]
The beet sour is known inSlavic languages askvas[b] (lit.'sour, acid'; comparekvass) and in Yiddish asrosl[c] (from a Slavic word originally referring to any brine obtained by steeping salted meat or vegetables in water; compare Russianrassol,[d] 'pickle juice', Polishrosół, 'broth'). Apart from its employment in borscht, it may also be added to preparedhorseradish or used aspot roast marinade.[21][22]
As the traditional method of making borscht with beet sour often requires planning at least several days ahead, many recipes for quicker borscht replace the beet sour with fresh beetroot juice, while the sour taste is imparted by other ingredients. Vinegar, tomato products, lemon juice orcitric acid may be used, as well asdryred wine,dill pickle juice,murături juice,sauerkraut juice, tart apples,Mirabelle plums,apricots, or a fermented rye flour and water mixture.[17][23][24][25]
There are multiple examples of the soup inUkrainian cuisine.[26][27] Virtually everyoblast has its own version. Differences between particular varieties may regard the type of stock used (meat, bone, or both), the type of meat (beef, pork, poultry, etc.), the choice of vegetables and the method of cutting and cooking them. For example, although the typical recipe calls for beef and pork, theKyiv variant usesmutton or lamb as well as beef, while in thePoltava region, the stock for borscht is cooked on poultry meat, that is,chicken,duck orgoose. The use of zucchini, beans and apples is characteristic of theChernihiv borscht; in this variant, beetroots are sautéed invegetable oil rather than lard, and the sour taste comes solely from tomatoes and tart apples. TheLviv borscht is based on bone stock and is served with chunks ofVienna sausages.[28][29] InSouthern Ukraine borshch typically includeslegumes. Historically, borshch with meat was reserved as a holiday dish, meanwhile varieties consumed duringlent would include fish, such as driedcrucian carp.[30]
Borscht is symbolic of hospitality in Ukraine and is part of multiple traditional celebrations and rituals. In some parts of Ukraine, the third day of a wedding celebration is calleddo nevistky na borshch, which translates to "visit daughter-in-law to eat borscht".[31] In 2022, UNESCO added "Culture of Ukrainian borscht cooking" to theList of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding, citing theRussian invasion of Ukraine.[32][33]
Polish
Polish clearChristmas Evebarszcz served overuszka, or ear-shaped mushroom-filled dumplings
As well as the thick borschts described above,Polish cuisine offers a ruby-colored beetroot bouillon known asbarszcz czysty czerwony, or clear red borscht. It is made by combining strained meat-and-vegetable stock with wild mushroom broth and beet sour. In some versions, smoked meat may be used for the stock and the tartness may be obtained or enhanced by adding lemon juice, dill pickle brine, or dry red wine. It may be served either in a soup bowl or—especially at dinner parties—as a hot beverage in a twin-handled cup, with acroquette or a filled pastry on the side. Unlike other types of borscht, it is not whitened withsour cream.[34]
Barszcz wigilijny, orChristmas Eve borscht, is a variant of the clear borscht that is traditionally served during the PolishChristmas Eve supper. In this version, meat stock is either omitted or replaced with fish broth, usually made by boiling the heads cut off from fish used in other Christmas Eve dishes. The mushrooms used for cooking the mushroom broth are reserved foruszka (small filled dumplings), which are then served with the borscht.[35]
Jewish
Ashkenazi Jews living in Eastern Europe adopted beetroot borscht from their Slavic neighbors and adapted it totheir taste and religious requirements. Ascombining meat with milk is proscribed bykosher dietary laws, Jews have developed two variants of the soup: meat (fleischik) and dairy (milchik). The meat variant is typically made from beef brisket (pork is never used[36]) and cabbage, while the dairy one is vegetarian, blended with sour cream or a mixture of milk and egg yolks. Both variants typically contain beetroots and onions, and are flavored with beet sour, vinegar or citric acid for tartness andbeet sugar for sweetness.Galician Jews traditionally liked their borscht particularly sweet. Jewish borscht may be served either hot or cold, typically with a hot boiled potato on the side.[2] In prewar Eastern Europe it was traditionally put up to ferment aroundPurim so that it would be ready four weeks later for the Passover holiday.[37]
Russian
Borscht with beef, sour cream and fresh herbs
Russian variants include aSiberian style borscht, characterized bymeatballs;Pskov borscht with driedsmelt from the local lakes; monasticLenten borscht with marinatedkelp instead of cabbage and theRussian Navy borscht (flotsky borshch[e]), the defining characteristic of which is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond-shaped chunks rather than julienned.[19][38]
Lithuanian cold borscht
Lithuanian beet soup as served in Lithuaniašaltibarščiai, or "cold borscht".
In the summertime, cold borscht is a popular alternative to the aforementioned variants, which are normally served hot. It consists of beet sour or beet juice blended with sour cream,buttermilk,soured milk,kefir oryogurt. The mixture has a distinctive pink or magenta color.[39] It is served refrigerated, typically over finely chopped beetroot,cucumbers,radishes andgreen onion, together with halves of a hard-boiled egg and sprinkled with fresh dill. Choppedveal, ham, orcrawfish tails may be added as well.[40][41][42]
The dish originates from the traditions of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The first recipe for Lithuanianšaltibarščiai (cold beet soup) was written down inWarsaw at the end of the 18th century byPaul Tremo, the chef of the last ruler of the Commonwealth,Stanisław August Poniatowski. It is believed that the name "Chłodnik Litewski" ("Lithuanian cold soup") was first translated into the Lithuanian language by Liudvika Didžiulienė-Žmona, who called the dish šaltieji barščiai (cold borscht).[43]In Belarusian, it is known asChaladnik.[42] The Soviet "Encyclopedia of Housekeeping" has an article on borscht including a "cold borscht" recipe asborshch kholodniiy.[44]In Vilnius, an annual festival (Vilnius Pink Soup Fest) is arranged since 2023 to celebrate the cultural heritage of Lithuanian cold beet soup[45][46]
Namesakes without beets
Althoughborscht is mostly used to describe a beet-based soup, there are soups in some culinary traditions with the same or similar names, but with sometimes wide variations in ingredients and preparation methods. In such soups, beetroots are not used or merely optional. The principal common trait among such borschts is a tart flavor from sour-tasting ingredients.[18] According toA Gift to Young Housewives, a book from the 19th century, "borscht" may or may not include beets (depending from recipe to recipe in the book).[47][48]
In Polish cuisine,white borscht (barszcz biały, also known asżur orżurek, 'sour soup'[f]) is made from a fermented mixture ofrye flour oroatmeal and water. It is typically flavored with garlic and marjoram, and served over eggs and boiled fresh sausage; the water in which the sausage was boiled is often used instead of meat stock.[50]
Polishwhite borscht served over fresh sausage, bacon and eggs
In theCarpathian Mountains of southern Poland, variants of borscht are also made in which the tart taste comes from dairy products, such aswhey or buttermilk.[51] Although the deep red color of beetroot borscht may remind those unfamiliar with Polish cuisine of blood, the type of borscht that does contain animal (usually poultry) blood mixed with vinegar is dark brownish-gray in color and aptly called "gray borscht" (barszcz szary), which is a regional name of the Polish blood soup better known asczernina.[52]
Sorrel-based Ukrainiangreen borscht served with sour cream and a hard-boiled egg
Green borscht (zeleny borshch[g]), a light soup made from leaf vegetables, is an example common in Ukrainian and Russian cuisines. The naturally tart-tastingsorrel is most commonly used, butspinach,chard,nettle,garden orache and occasionallydandelion,goutweed orramsons, may be added as well, especially after the spring season for sorrel has passed.[53][54][55][56] Like beetroot borscht, it is based on meat or vegetable broth and is typically served with boiled potatoes and hard-boiled eggs, sprinkled with dill.[16] There is also a variety of Ukrainian green borscht which includes both sorrel and beetroots.[57]
InRomanian andMoldovan cuisines, a mixture ofwheatbran orcornmeal with water that has been left to ferment, similar to, but less cloudy than that used in Polish white borscht, is calledborș.[58][59] It is used to impart a sour taste to a variety of tangy Romanian soups, known as either alsoborș orciorbă. Variants includeciorbă de perișoare (with meatballs),ciorbă de burtă (withtripe),borș de pește (with fish) andborș de sfeclă roșie (with beetroots).[60][61]
TheArmenian,Azerbaijani andGeorgian version of borscht is a hot soup made with beef stock, green peppers and other vegetables, which may or may not include beetroots, and flavored with chopped red chili and freshcilantro.[62][24] Inethnic Mennonite cuisine,borscht refers to a whole range of seasonal vegetable soups based on beef or chicken stock—from spring borscht made with spinach, sorrel and chard to summer borscht with cabbage, tomatoes,maize andsquash to fall and winter borscht with cabbage, beets and potatoes.[63]
InChinese cuisine, a soup known asLuosong tang,[h], a translation based on the term "Russian soup" from the Russian diaspora in China, is based on red cabbage and tomatoes, and lacks beetroots altogether; also known as "Chinese borscht", it originated inHarbin, close to the Russian border in northeast China, and has spread as far asHong Kong.[64] InShanghai'sHaipai cuisine, tomatoes are the main ingredient; beef and its broth, onions and cabbages are also added; while flour, rather than sour cream, is used for thickening.[65]
Garnishes and sides
Borscht sprinkled with parsley, served with a dollop of sour cream and a slice of rye bread
A bouillon cup ofclear borscht, a type of Borscht with akrokiet and a brine-pickled gherkin on the side
The diversity of borscht styles is matched by the wide choice of garnishes and side dishes with which various types of borscht may be served. Most often, borscht is served withsmetena, a soured dairy product similar to the Frenchcrème fraîche.[66] The smetana may be served in a separate pitcher for the diners to add the desired amount themselves or the borscht may come already "whitened"[i] with the smetana already added. The cream can also be thickened with flour before being added to the soup.[67] Yogurt[16] and a mixture of milk andyolks are possible substitutes.[68][2]
Chopped herbs are often sprinkled on the surface of the soup; dill is most common, but parsley,chives orscallion are often added as well. Individual helpings may be spiced up with minced hot peppers or garlic.[67] Many types of borscht are served over halves or quarters of hard-boiledchicken orquail eggs.[69]Navy beans,broad beans orstring beans are also a common addition.[67][70]
Meat, removed from the stock on which the borscht was based, may be cut into smaller chunks and either added back into the soup or served on the side with horseradish ormustard.[71]Bacon and sausages are also commonly used as borscht garnishes.[19] Borscht based on bone stock may be served Old Polish style, with marrow from the bones.[67]
Some types of soup, such as Poltava borscht, may be served withhalushky, or thick noodles of wheat or buckwheat flour.[72] Siberian borscht is eaten with boiled meatballs (frikadelki[j]) of minced beef and onion.[19] In Poland and parts of western Ukraine, borscht is typically ladled overuszka, or bite-sized ear-shaped dumplings made frompasta dough wrapped around mushroom, buckwheat or meat filling. Mushroom-filleduszka are particularly associated with Polish Christmas Eve borscht.[73][74][19]
Borscht, like any other soup in East Slavic cuisines, is seldom eaten by itself, but rather accompanied by a side dish. At a minimum, spoonfuls of borscht are alternated with bites of a slice of bread.Buckwheat groats or boiled potatoes, often topped withpork cracklings, are other simple possibilities,[70] but a range of more involved sides exists as well.[citation needed]
In Ukraine, borscht is often accompanied withpampushky, or savory, puffy yeast-raised rolls glazed withoil and crushed garlic.[71][75][19] In Russian cuisine, borscht may be served with any of assorted side dishes based ontvorog, or the East European variant offarmer cheese, such asvatrushki,syrniki orkrupeniki.Vatrushki are baked round cheese-filled tarts;syrniki are small pancakes wherein the cheese is mixed into the batter; and akrupenik is a casserole of buckwheat groats baked with cheese.[19]
Pirozhki, or baked dumplings with fillings as foruszka, are another common side for both thick and clear variants of borscht.[76] Polish clear borscht may also be served with a croquette orpaszteciki. A typical Polish croquette (krokiet) is made by wrapping acrêpe (thin pancake) around a filling and coating it inbreadcrumbs before refrying;paszteciki (lit.'littlepâtés') are variously shaped filled hand-held pastries of yeast-raised or flaky dough. An even more exquisite way to serve borscht is with acoulibiac, or a large loaf-shaped pie. Possible fillings for croquettes,paszteciki and coulibiacs include mushrooms, sauerkraut and minced meat.[77][78]
History
Precursors
Common hogweed, originally the principal ingredient of borscht
Borscht derives from a soup originally made by theSlavs fromcommon hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium, also known as cow parsnip), which lent the dish itsSlavic name.[11] Growing commonly in damp meadows throughout the north temperate zone, hogweed was used not only as fodder (as its English names suggest), but also for human consumption—from Eastern Europe to Siberia, to northwestern North America.[79][80]
The Slavs collected hogweed in May and used its roots for stewing with meat.[11] As for the stems, leaves, andumbels; these would be chopped, covered with water and left in a warm place to ferment. After a few days,lactic andalcoholic fermentation produced a mixture described as "something betweenbeer and sauerkraut".[81] This fermented product was then used for cooking a soup.[citation needed]
The said soup—with aforementioned fermented hogweed concoction used—was characterized by a mouth-puckering amount of sourness in its taste, while its smell was described as pungent[82] As the PolishethnographerŁukasz Gołębiowski wrote in 1830, "Poles have been always partial to tart dishes, which are somewhat peculiar to their homeland and vital to their health."[k][83]Simon Syrenius (Szymon Syreński), a 17th century Polish botanist, described "our Polish hogweed"[l] as a vegetable that was well known throughout Poland,Ruthenia,Lithuania andSamogitia (that is, most of the northern part of Eastern Europe), typically used for cooking a "tasty and graceful soup"[m] withcapon stock, eggs, sour cream andmillet. More interested in the plant's medicinal properties than its culinary use, he also recommended pickled hogweed juice as a cure for fever or hangover.[84]
One of the earliest possible mentions of borscht as a soup is found in the diary of German merchant Martin Gruneweg, who visitedKyiv in 1584. After Gruneweg reached riverBorshchahivka in Kyiv's vicinity on 17 October 1584, he wrote down a local legend saying that the river was so named because there was a borscht market. However, he doubted the story noting that "Ruthenians buy borscht rarely or never, because everyone cooks their own at home as it's their staple food and drink".[85]
Another early written reference to the Slavic hogweed soup can be found inDomostroy (Domestic Order), a 16th century Russian compendium of moral rules and homemaking advice. It recommends growing the plant "by the fence, around the whole garden, where the nettle grows", to cook a soup of it in springtime and reminds the reader to, "for the Lord's sake, share it with those in need".[18]
Hogweed borscht was mostly a poor man's food. The soup's humble beginnings are still reflected in Polish fixed expressions, where "cheap like borscht"[n] is the equivalent of "dirt cheap" (also attested as acalque in Yiddish andCanadian English),[86][87] whereas adding "two mushrooms into borscht"[o] is synonymous with excess.[88] For the professors of theUniversity of Kraków, who led a monastic way of life in the 17th century, hogweed borscht was a fasting dish which they ate regularly from Lent tillRogation days.[89] It was uncommon on the royal table,[11] although according to the 16th century Polish botanistMarcin of Urzędów—citingGiovanni Manardo, a court physician to theJagiellonian kings of Hungary—the Polish-born KingVladislaus II used to have a Polish hogweed-based dish prepared for him at his court inBuda.[90]
Diversification
With time, other ingredients were added to the soup, eventually replacing hogweed altogether, and the namesborshch orbarszcz became generic terms for any sour-tasting soup. In 19th century rural Poland, this term included soups made frombarberries,currants,gooseberries,cranberries, celery orplums.[91][92][93]
Rye meal mixed with water and left to sour is the main ingredient of Polish white borscht.
When describing the uses of common hogweed,John Gerard, a 17th century English botanist, observed that "the people of [Poland] and Lithuania [used] to make [a] drink with the decoction of this herb andleaven or some other thing made ofmeal, which is used instead of beer and other ordinary drink".[p][94] It may suggest that hogweed soup was on some occasions combined with a fermented mixture of water andbarley flour, oatmeal or rye flour. Such soured, gelatinous flour-and-water mixture, originally known askissel[q][95][96] (from the Proto-Slavic root*kyslŭ, 'sour'[97][98]) had been already mentioned inThe Tale of Bygone Years, a 12th century chronicle ofKievan Rus',[99][100] and continued to be a staple of Ukrainian and Russian cooking until the middle of the 19th century.[101] In Poland, a soup based on diluted kissel became known as eitherżur[102] (fromMiddle High Germansur, 'sour'[103]) orbarszcz and later—to distinguish it from the red beetroot borscht—asbarszcz biały, 'white borscht'.[104]
The earliest known Polish recipes for borscht, written by chefs catering to Polishmagnates (aristocrats), are from the late 17th century.Stanisław Czerniecki, head chef to PrinceAleksander Michał Lubomirski, included several borscht recipes in hisCompendium ferculorum (A Collection of Dishes), the first cookbook published originally in Polish, in 1682. They include such sour soups as lemon borscht and "royal borscht", the latter made from assorted dried, smoked or fresh fish and fermented rye bran.[105] A manuscript recipe collection from theRadziwiłł family court, dating back toc. 1686, contains an instruction for making hogweed borscht mixed withpoppy seeds or groundalmonds. As this was a Lenten dish, it was garnished, in atrompe-l'œil fashion typical ofBaroque cuisine, with mock eggs made from finely choppedpike that was partly dyed with saffron and formed into oval balls.[82][106] An alternative recipe for the almond borscht replaced pickled hogweed with vinegar.[107]
Cabbage soup attributed as "borscht" may be indistinguishable from the Russianshchi.
Borscht also evolved into a variety of sour soups to the east of Poland. Examples include onion borscht, a recipe for which was included in a 1905 Russian cookbook,[108] and sorrel-based green borscht, which is still a popular summer soup in Ukraine and Russia.A Gift to Young Housewives byElena Molokhovets, the best-selling Russian cookbook of the 19th century,[109] first published in 1861, contains nine recipes for borscht, some of which are based onkvass, a traditional Slavicfermented beverage made from rye bread.[110] Kvass-based variants were also known in Ukraine at that time; some of them were types of green borscht, while others were similar to the Russianokroshka.[54]
Before the advent of beet-based borscht, cabbage borscht was of particular importance. Made from either fresh cabbage or sauerkraut, it could be indistinguishable from the Russianshchi.[111] Indeed, the mid-19th centuryExplanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language definesborshch as "a kind of shchi" with beet sour added for tartness.[112][18] The significance of cabbage as an essential ingredient of borscht is manifest in the Ukrainian proverb, "without bread, it's no lunch; without cabbage, it's no borscht."[r][113]
Novel ingredients: beets, tomatoes and potatoes
Peasants harvesting beets in what is now Ukraine,[114] painted byLeon Wyczółkowski in 1893
Beet (Beta vulgaris), a plant native to theMediterranean Basin, was already grown in antiquity.[115] Only the leaves were of culinary use, as the tapered, tough, whitish and bitter-tasting root was considered unfit for human consumption.[116] It is probably that beet greens were used in variants of green borscht long before the invention of the beetroot-based red borscht.[18] Beetvarieties with round, red, sweettaproots, known as beetroots, were not reliably reported until the 12th century[117] and did not spread to Eastern Europe before the 16th century.[118]
Mikołaj Rej, aPolish Renaissance poet and moralist, included the earliest known Polish recipe for pickled beetroots in his 1568 book,Life of an Honest Man.[119] It would later evolve intoćwikła,[120] orchrain mit burik,[121] a beet-and-horseradish relish popular in Polish and Jewish cuisines.Rej also recommended the "very tasty brine"[s] left over from beetroot pickling,[122] which was an early version of beet sour. The sour found some applications in Polish folk medicine as a cure for hangover and—mixed with honey—as a sore throat remedy.[92]
It may never be known who first thought of using beet sour to flavor borscht, which also gave the soup its now-familiar red color. One of the earliest mentions of borscht with pickled beets comes from Russian ethnographer Andrey Meyer, who wrote in his 1781 book that people in Ukraine make fermented red beets withAcanthus, which they in turn use to cook their borscht.[123] The book "Description of the Kharkiv Governorate" of 1785, which describes the food culture of the Ukrainians, says that borscht was the most consumed food, cooked from beets and cabbage with various other herbal spices and millet, on sour kvass; it was always made with pork lard or beef lard, on holidays with lamb or poultry, and sometimes with game.[124]Jerzy Samuel Bandtkie's Polish-German dictionary published in 1806 was the first to definebarszcz as a tart soup made from pickled beetroots.[125]
The addition of tomatoes may give borscht an orange tinge instead of the purplish red imparted by beetroots.
The fact that certain 19th century Russian and Polish cookbooks, such asHandbook of the Experienced Russian Housewife (1842) byYekaterina Avdeyeva[126][127] andThe Lithuanian Cook (1854) byWincenta Zawadzka,[128] refer to beetroot-based borscht as "Little Russian borscht"[t] (where "Little Russian" is a term used at the time for ethnicUkrainians underimperial Russian rule) suggests that this innovation took place in what is now Ukraine,[2] whose soils and climate are particularly well suited to beet cultivation. Ukrainian legends, probably of 19th century origin, attribute the invention of beetroot borscht either toZaporozhian Cossacks, serving in the Polish army, on their way to break thesiege of Vienna in 1683, or toDon Cossacks, serving in the Russian army, whilelaying siege to Azov in 1695.[18]
Spanishconquistadors brought potatoes and tomatoes from the Americas to Europe in the 16th century, but these vegetables only became commonly grown and consumed in Eastern Europe in the 19th century. Eventually, both became staples ofpeasant diet and essential ingredients of Ukrainian and Russian borscht. Potatoes replaced turnips in borscht recipes, and tomatoes—fresh, canned or paste—took over from beet sour as the source of tartness. The turnip is rarely found in modern recipes, and even then, together with potatoes.[18] In Ukraine, beet sour and tomatoes were both used for some time until the latter ultimately prevailed during the last third of the 19th century.[129]
Haute cuisine
In Ukraine borshch was popularized as a national dish byCossack starshyna. In the 19th centuries some recipes used for cooking borshch in urban families would contain more than 20 ingredients, and among the rich it was not rare to consume several varieties of the dish during one meal. One recipe preserved from that time includes ingredients such ascardamom,eggs,mushrooms andcherry.[30]
Russian and Polish aristocrats used to employ celebrated French chefs, who later presented their dishes as foreign curios back in France. One of the first French chefs to do so wasMarie-Antoine Carême, who worked briefly for EmperorAlexander I in 1819.[130] In his take on borscht, the original Russian soup served only as inspiration for an extravaganthaute cuisine dish with an air of eastern exoticism.[131] Apart from vegetables and beet sour, his recipe calls for a roast chicken, a fried chicken, a duck, a piece of veal, anoxtail, a marrow bone, one pound of bacon, and six large sausages, and suggests serving with beefquenelles, deviled eggs andcroûtons.[16]
Auguste Escoffier,Carême's apprentice, who was mostly fascinated by the soup's vivid ruby-red color, simplified his master's recipe, while also securing the place ofpotage bortsch (lit.'borscht soup') in French cuisine.[132]Urbain Dubois andÉmile Bernard, both of whom had been employed at Polish aristocratic courts, presented borscht to the French public as a Polish soup; their cookbook,La cuisine classique, published in 1856, contains a borscht recipe under the descriptive name,potage au jus de betteraves à la polonaise (lit.'Polish-style beet-juice soup'),[133] which had been changed topotage barsch à la polonaise by the third edition in 1868.[134] In 1867, beetroot borscht was served, along withherrings,sturgeon, coulibiac,Pozharsky cutlets andvinaigrette salad,[135] at a Russian-themed dinner at theInternational Exposition inParis, strengthening its international association with Russian culture.[136]
Global spread
A modern bowl of dark-red borscht garnished with a dollop of sour cream and a parsley leaf. Note the bubbles of oil, making borscht close tovinegret.
Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, borscht's popularity spread beyond its Slavic homeland, largely due to such factors as territorial expansion of the Russian Empire, Russia's growing political clout and cultural stature, and waves of emigration out of the country. As Russia grew to cover most of northern and central Eurasia, borscht was introduced to the cuisines of various peoples inhabiting the territories both within and adjacent to the empire, fromFinland[137] to theCaucasus[62][138] andIran,[139] toCentral Asia[140][141] and China, toAlaska (Russian America).[142]
Borscht's westward expansion was less successful; Germans used to scoff at the soup along with other East European fare.[2] What helped the spread of borscht, however, was the popularization by varioushaute cuisine chefs who had their own dishes to present to West Europe.[citation needed]
Ukrainian beet-and-cabbage borscht
Mass migration from the Russian Empire to North America—initially mostly by members of persecuted religious minorities—was instrumental in bringing borscht across the Atlantic.[143] Jews from thePale of Settlement, an area that stretched along the western edges of the Russian Empire and included much of present-day Ukraine, brought with them the Ukrainian variety of borscht with beetroot.[144]
The earliest waves of migration, however, occurred at a time when cabbage-based borscht was still the dominant variant of the soup in at least parts of Russia. The Mennonites, who began arriving in Canada and the United States from Russia'sVolga region in the 1870s,[143] still eschew beetroots in their borscht;[18] instead, Mennonite varieties includeKomst Borscht (with cabbage or sauerkraut) andSomma Borscht (sorrel-based "summer borscht").[143] According to theJewish Encyclopedia published in 1906, cabbage-basedkraut borscht was also more popular than the beet-based variant inAmerican Jewish cuisine at the time.[68] Subsequent Jewish immigration helped popularize the red borscht in America.[citation needed]
In the 1930s, when most American hotels refused to accept Jewish guests due to widespreadanti-Semitism,New York Jews began flocking to Jewish-owned resorts in theCatskill Mountains for their summer vacations. The area grew into a major center of Jewish entertainment, with restaurants offeringall-you-can-eat Ashkenazi Jewish fare, including copious amounts of borscht.Grossinger's, one of the largest resorts, served borscht throughout the day, every day of the year. The region became known, initially in derision, as the "Borscht Belt", reinforcing the popular association between borscht and American Jewish culture.[2] As most visitors arrived in the summertime, the borscht was typically served cold. Marc Gold was one of its largest suppliers, producing 1,750short tons (1,590tonnes) a year in his business's heyday.[145] Gold's borscht consists ofpuréed beetroots seasoned with sugar, salt and citric acid;[146] it is usually blended with sour cream and served as a refreshing beverage, more aptly described as a "beetsmoothie". Such type of "purplish, watery broth" is, according to Nikolai Burlakoff, author ofThe World of Russian Borsch, "associated in America with borsch, in general, and Jewish borsch in particular."[147]
Borscht in the USSR
In theSoviet Union, borscht was one of the most popular everyday dishes. It was described in 2008 by journalistJames Meek as "the common denominator of theSoviet kitchen, the dish that tied together ... the high table ofthe Kremlin and the meanest canteen in the boondocks of theUrals, ... the beetroot soup that pumped like the main artery through the kitchens of theeast Slav lands."[148] Among Soviet leaders, the Ukrainian-bornLeonid Brezhnev was especially partial to borscht, which his wife continued to personally cook for him even after they had moved into the Kremlin.[130]
The soup has even played a role in theSoviet space program. In March 1961, as part of a communications equipment test, a pre-recorded recipe for borscht was broadcast from theKorabl-Sputnik 4 spacecraft. The craft, carrying animals anda mannequin, had been launched intolow Earth orbit in preparation for crewed space flights.[149] Actual borscht eventually made its way into outer space asspace food for Soviet and, later, Russiancosmonauts. Originally, a puréed version of borscht was supplied in tubes.[citation needed]
All ingredients for the space borscht (which include beef, beetroots, cabbage, potatoes, carrots, onions, parsley root, and tomato paste) were cooked separately, then combined one by one in strictly controlled order,sterilized, packed into tubes, sealed airtight andautoclaved. In the 1970s, the tubes were replaced with packages of rehydratablefreeze-dried borscht with regular-size bits of cooked vegetables.[150]
However, with urbanization and mass construction ofKhrushchyovka type housing, borscht would be affected; there would be no comfortable place to make own days-long dishes with "kvass" and sour foods, in a tiny apartment. At this rate, the idea of making its beet sour lost its initial appeal, making borscht in USSR mainly about beets, not about sourness.[citation needed]
However, the same article mentions the sour variant of the beet soup: it lists separate "Ukrainian borscht" and "Cold borscht" recipes. The "Ukrainian borscht" one properly instructs to make the sour soup with beets by saying "sbryznut' uksusom (Cyrillic: сбрызнуть уксусом)", e.g. instructs to sprinkle it with some vinegar.[citation needed]
A beet infusion for borscht is also mentioned in the said article. It involves soaking a beet with boiled water and then adding some vinegar. Again, this makeshift-like substitute for beet sour is listed in the aforementioned Soviet encyclopedia as a way to color borscht, not to sour it.[citation needed]
Era of Stagnation also would affect making borscht from time to time to the next level of simplification: the aforementioned canned tomato products, "paste" or "purée" would be a "deficit" item, a thing not available regularly in one's nearbyconvenience stores. On the other hand, due to urbanization, people would not resort to making own batches of, say, pickled tomatoes. As result, many modern recipes of beet soups labeled as "borscht" list neither a tartness source (lack tomatoes, pickles, etc.) nor a sourness source (lack vinegar, lemon acid powder, let alone beet sour kvass).[citation needed]
In culture
As a ritual dish
Borscht is often associated with its role in religious traditions of various denominations (Eastern Orthodox,Greek andRoman Catholic, andJewish) that are common in Eastern Europe. In East Slavic countries, "memorial borscht"[u] is served as the first course at apost-funeral wake. According to a traditional belief, the soul of the departed either feeds on or is carried up to heaven by puffs of steam rising from bowls of borscht and other hot dishes, such asblini,porridge, boiled potatoes or freshly baked bread.[151][143] In the region ofPolesye, straddling the Belarusian-Ukrainian border, the same steaming-hot dishes, including borscht, are given as an offering to the souls of deceased ancestors during the annual semi-pagan remembrance ceremony known asDzyady or Forefathers' Night.[152][153]
In Poland and Ukraine, borscht is usually one of the dishes served at aChristmas Eve dinner. Celebrated after the first star has appeared in the sky[154] on December 24 (Roman Catholic) or January 6 (Greek Catholic), it is a meal which is at the same time festive and fasting, a multicourse affair (traditionally, with twelve distinct dishes) that excludes ingredients of land-animal origin.[155] Christmas Eve borscht is, therefore, either vegetarian or based on fish stock and is not typically mixed with sour cream. In Ukraine, the soup contains vegetables that are sautéed in vegetable oil rather than lard, as well as beans and mushrooms. It may also be thickened with wheat flourdry-roasted in a pan instead of the usual roux.[129] The Polish version of Christmas Eve borscht is a clear ruby-red broth. Both Ukrainian and Polish variants are often served withuszka.[23][74]
While Christmas in Poland is traditionally linked to red borscht, Lent—the fasting period that leads up toEaster—is associated with a meatless version of white borscht, orżur. Youths used to celebrateHoly Saturday, the last day of the fast, with a mock "funeral" of the white borscht, in which a pot of the soup was either buried in the ground or broken, sometimes—to the crowd's amusement—while being carried by an unsuspecting boy on his head.[102] On the next day, the white borscht would reappear on the Easter table, but this time, in its more coveted, meat-based guise with sausage, bacon and eggs.[82]
In Eastern European Ashkenazi Jewish tradition, vegetarian borscht served with sour cream and boiled potatoes on the side, known aspeysakhdiker borsht, is considered an essential dish during the Passover period. As the holiday is observed in spring (March or April), the preparation of Passover borscht used to provide an opportunity to use up the beet sour left over from pickled beetroots that had been consumed during winter, remaining potatoes that had been stored throughout the winter and sour cream that was readily available in the new calving season.[2] Cold borscht blended with sour cream is also popular onShavuot (Feast of Weeks), a holiday customarily associated with dairy foods, observed in late May or early June.[156]Seudah Shlishit, or the third meal of theShabbat, often includes borscht as well.[2]
In 2022, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) announced that it had placed "Culture of Ukrainian borscht cooking" on theList of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding due to the risk thatRussia's invasion posed to the soup's status as an element of Ukraine's cultural heritage.[157] According toThe Smithsonian, "The designation by the international cultural authority was widely seen as a landmark decision in theongoing cultural dispute between the two countries on borshch’s true country of origin."[158]
As an ethnic dish
In its currently most popular, beet-based version, borscht most probably originated in what is now Ukraine.[1][2][18] Borscht's role as a staple of everyday Ukrainian diet is reflected in the Ukrainian saying, "borscht and porridge are our food"[v][113] (compare the equivalent Russian saying, where borscht is replaced withshchi[w][136]). The hearty soup in which the beetroot is just one of sundry vegetables, as opposed to the typically Polish clear beet broth, is still known in Poland as "Ukrainian borscht".[x][159][160]
Borscht is associated with and claimed by several ethnic groups, especially Ukrainians, Russians, Poles, Lithuanians and Ashkenazi Jews, as their ownnational or ethnic dish andcultural icon.[161][162] Suchgastronationalistic claims are not necessarily mutually exclusive, as the soup's history predates the emergence in Eastern Europe of modern nation states with their ever-shifting borders. Borscht, in the words of Burlakoff, "is perfectly suited to a global culture". He describes it as "a global phenomenon", in which "local variants are so numerous and diverse that it is hard sometimes for a non-specialist to grasp that any single example of it is something that is part of a unified tradition". In his view, borscht "is an almost perfect example of ... 'glocalization'—a phenomenon that is global in distribution but reflective of local needs and ways in its variants and adaptation; ... a highly localized product that became globalized, and in the process adapted to conditions other than the original ones."[130]
However, according to Irina Perianova, a Russian linguist and anthropologist, "people tend to be very proprietal about their food and proud of it." Perianova offers competing Russian and Ukrainian views on the origin and ingredients of borscht as an example of "a common connection between culinary and territorial claims", which results in the culinary area turning into "a battlefield generating and proliferating all kinds of myths".[161] In 2020 Ukraine began the process to have borscht recognised as an element of the country'sintangible cultural heritage, an initiative supported by chefs and food writers such asMarianna Dushar.[163][164][165]
A bowl of borscht together with its usual ingredients featured on Ukrainian postage stamps
In the Soviet Union, government-sponsored cookbooks, such asThe Book of Tasty and Healthy Food (1939) curated byAnastas Mikoyan, andCookery andDirectory of Recipes and Culinary Production, promoted a unified Soviet cuisine with standardized and nutritionally "rational" versions of traditional dishes.[166][167] The same cooking techniques and recipes were taught in culinary vocational schools throughout the country, establishing a common cooking style in Soviet cafés and restaurants.[167] Though inspired by the cuisines of the country's various ethnic groups, many recipes were presented as part of an overall Soviet heritage, disassociated from their individual geographic origins.[108]
By many people both inside and outside the Soviet Union, borscht was increasingly seen not as an ethnic Ukrainian soup, but as a Soviet or—metonymically—Russian dish.[168] This approach was criticized byWilliam Pokhlebkin, a preeminent Russian food writer, who unequivocally described beet-based borscht as one of the "dishes of Ukrainian cookery" which "have entered the menu of international cuisine".[y][169] "One could understand", he wrote, "and forgive foreigners for calling borscht orvarenyky Russian national dishes, but when it turns out that they gleaned the information from Soviet cookbooks or from restaurant menus, one is embarrassed for our authors and chefs, who popularize the national cuisines of our peoples [that is, the ethnic groups of the Soviet Union] with such ignorance."[z][170]
According to Meek:
Pokhlebkin and the Soviet Union are dead, yet Borshchland lives on. Recipes, like birds, ignore political boundaries. ... The faint outline of the Tsarist-Soviet imperium still glimmers in the collective steam off bowls of beetroot and cabbage in meat stock, and the soft sound of dollops of sour cream slipping into soup, from theBlack Sea to theSea of Japan and, in emigration, fromBrooklyn toBerlin.[148]
^Polish termsbarszcz biały 'white borscht' andżur orżurek are either used interchangeably or refer to different soups, depending on the regional dialect and ingredients used.[49]
^Polish:barszcz zabielany; Russian:забеленный борщ (zabelenny borshch); literally 'whitened borscht', that is, clouded with flour or dairy products. In Yiddish, the process of whitening borscht is known asfarweissen.
^Original spelling:The people of Polonia and Lituania vse to make drinke with the decoction of this herbe, and leuen or some other thing made of meale, which is vsed in stead of beere and other ordinarie drinke.
^Polish:kisiel; Russian:кисель (kisel'); Ukrainian:кисiль (kysil'); today, these words refer to a sweet fruit-flavored jelly made from potato starch.
^Ukrainian:Без хліба – не обід; без капусти – не борщ (Bez khliba – ne obid; bez kapusty – ne borshch).
^Russian:некоторые блюда украинской кухни, например борщи и вареники, вошли в меню международной кухни.
^Russian:То, что иностранцы называют борщ или вареники русскими национальными блюдами, еще можно понять и извинить, но когда выясняется, что эти сведения они почерпнули из советских кулинарных книг или из меню ресторанов, становится стыдно за наших авторов и мастеров общепита, так безграмотно пропагандирующих национальную кухню наших народов.
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