Theisland is politically divided among three states. The sovereign state ofBrunei in the north makes up 1% of the territory.[4] In the centre and south, approximately 73% of Borneo is Indonesian territory. In the north, theEast Malaysian states ofSabah andSarawak make up about 26% of the island. The Malaysian federal territory ofLabuan is situated on a small island just off the coast of Borneo.
When the sixteenth-centuryPortuguese explorerJorge de Menezes made contact with the indigenous people of Borneo, they referred to their island asPulu K'lemantang, which became the name for modern-day Indonesian Borneo.[5][6][7] The termkelamantan is used in Sarawak to refer to a group of people who consumesago in the northern part of the island.[8]
According to Crowfurd, the wordkelamantan is the name of a type of mango (Mangifera), though he adds that the word is fanciful and unpopular.[9] The local mango, calledklemantan, is still widely found in ruralKetapang and surrounding areas of West Kalimantan.[10]
Internationally, it is known as Borneo, a name derived from European contact with theBrunei kingdom in the 16th century, during theAge of Exploration. On a map from around 1601, Brunei city is referred to as Borneo, and the whole island is also labelled Borneo.[11][12] The name may derive from theSanskrit wordváruṇa (वरुण), meaning either "water" orVaruna, the Hindu god of rain.[13]
Another source states that it derives from the Sanskrit wordkalamanthana, meaning "burning weather", possibly to describe the island's hot and humidtropical weather.[14] In the Indianized Malay era[clarification needed] the nameKalamanthana was derived from the Sanskrit termskala (time or season) andmanthana (churning, kindling, or creating fire by friction),[15] which possibly describes the hot weather.[16]
Borneo was formed throughMesozoic accretion of microcontinental fragments,ophiolite terranes andisland arc crust onto aPaleozoic continental core. At the beginning of theCenozoic Borneo formed apromontory ofSundaland which partly separated from Asian mainland by theproto-South China Sea.[19] The oceanic part of the proto-South China Sea wassubducted during thePaleogene period and a largeaccretionary complex formed along the northwestern of the island of Borneo. In theearly Miocene uplift of the accretionary complex occurred as a result of underthrusting of thinned continental crust in northwest.[19] The uplift may have also resulted from shortening due to the counter-clockwise rotation of Borneo between 20 and 10mega-annum (Ma) as a consequence ofAustralia-Southeast Asia collision.[19] Large volumes ofsediment were shed into basins, which scattered offshore to the west, north and east of Borneo as well into aNeogene basin which is currently exposed in large areas of eastern and southernSabah. In southeast Sabah, theMiocene to recent island arc terranes of theSulu Archipelago extend onshore into Borneo with the oldervolcanic arc was the result of southeast dipping subduction while the younger volcanics are likely resulted from northwest dipping subduction theCelebes Sea.[19]
Marine life off the coast of Borneo, in the Sulu Sea
Before sea levels rose at the end of thelast ice age, Borneo was part of the mainland of Asia, forming, withJava andSumatra, the upland regions of a peninsula that extended east from present dayIndochina. TheSouth China Sea andGulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula. Deeper waters separating Borneo from neighbouringSulawesi prevented a land connection to that island, creating the divide known asWallace's Line between Asian and Australia-New Guinea biological regions.[20][21] The island today is surrounded by theSouth China Sea to the north and northwest, theSulu Sea to the northeast, the Celebes Sea and theMakassar Strait to the east, and theJava Sea andKarimata Strait to the south. To the west of Borneo are theMalay Peninsula andSumatra. To the south and east are islands of Indonesia:Java andSulawesi, respectively. To the northeast are thePhilippine Islands. With an area of 743,330 square kilometres (287,000 sq mi), it is the third-largest island in the world, and is the largest island ofAsia (the largest continent). Its highest point isMount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m (13,435 ft).[22]
The largest river system is theKapuas inWest Kalimantan, with a length of 1,143 km (710 mi).[23] Other major rivers include theMahakam inEast Kalimantan (980 km (610 mi) long),[24] theBarito,Kahayan, andMendawai inSouth Kalimantan (1,090 km (680 mi), 658 km (409 mi), and 616 km (383 mi) long respectively),[25]Rajang in Sarawak (565 km (351 mi) long)[26] andKinabatangan in Sabah (560 km (350 mi) long).[27] Borneo has significant cave systems. In Sarawak, the Clearwater Cave has one of the world's longest underground rivers whileDeer Cave is home to over three millionbats, withguano accumulated to over 100 metres (330 ft) deep.[28] TheGomantong Caves in Sabah has been dubbed as the "Cockroach Cave" due to the presence of millions of cockroaches inside the cave.[29][30] TheGunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak andSangkulirang-Mangkalihat Karst in East Kalimantan which particularly akarst areas contains thousands of smaller caves.[31]
TheBorneo montane rain forests lie in the central highlands of the island, above the 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) elevation.
The highest elevations ofMount Kinabalu are home to theKinabalu montane alpine meadows, a subalpine and alpine shrubland notable for its numerous endemic species, including many orchids.
According to analysis of data fromGlobal Forest Watch,[45] the Indonesian portion of Borneo lost 10.7 million hectares (26 million acres) of tree cover between 2002 and 2019, of which 4 million hectares (9.9 million acres) wasprimary forest, compared with Malaysian Borneo's 4.4 million hectares (11 million acres) of tree cover loss and 1.9 million hectares (4.7 million acres) of primary forest cover loss. As of 2020, Indonesian Borneo accounts for 72% of the island's tree cover, Malaysian Borneo 27%, and Brunei 1%. Primary forest in Indonesia accounts for 44% of Borneo's overall tree cover.[46]
The island historically had extensive rainforest cover, but the area was reduced due to heavylogging by the Indonesian and Malaysian wood industry, especially with the large demands of raw materials fromindustrial countries along with the conversion of forest lands for large-scale agricultural purposes.[42] Half of the annual globaltropical timber acquisition comes from Borneo.Palm oil plantations have been widely developed and are rapidly encroaching on the last remnants of primary rainforest.[48]Forest fires since 1997, started by the locals to clear the forests for plantations were exacerbated by an exceptionally dryEl Niño season, worsening the annual shrinkage of the rainforest.[49] During these fires, hotspots were visible onsatellite images and the resultinghaze frequently affected Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia. The haze could also reach southernThailand,Cambodia,Vietnam and thePhilippines as evidenced on the2015 Southeast Asian haze.[50]
A 2018 study found thatBornean orangutans declined by 148,500 individuals from 1999 to 2015.[51]
In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest knownfigurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave ofLubang Jeriji Saléh on the island of Borneo.[52][53] It has been proposed, based on house construction styles, linguistic and genetic evidence, that Madagascar may have been first populated from southern Borneo.[citation needed]
According to ancient Chinese (977),[54]: 129 Indian and Japanese manuscripts, western coastal cities of Borneo had become trading ports by the first millennium AD.[55] In Chinese manuscripts, gold,camphor,tortoise shells,hornbill ivory,rhinoceros horn,crane crest,beeswax,lakawood (a scented heartwood and root wood of a thickliana,Dalbergia parviflora),dragon's blood,rattan, ediblebird's nests and various spices were described as among the most valuable items from Borneo.[56] TheIndians named BorneoSuvarnabhumi (the land of gold) and alsoKarpuradvipa (Camphor Island). TheJavanese named BorneoPuradvipa, or Diamond Island.Archaeological findings in the Sarawak river delta reveal that the area was a thriving centre of trade between India and China from the 6th century until about 1300.[56]
Stone pillars bearing inscriptions in thePallava script, found inKutai along theMahakam River inEast Kalimantan and dating to around the second half of the 4th century, constitute some of the oldest evidence ofHindu influence in Southeast Asia.[57] By the 14th century, Borneo became avassal state ofMajapahit (in present-day Indonesia),[58][59] later changing its allegiance to theMing dynasty of China.[60] Pre-Islamic Sulu, then known locally asLupah Sug, stretched from Palawan and the Sulu archipelago at the Philippines; toSabah,Eastern, andNorthern Kalimantan in Borneo.[61] The Sulu empire rose as a rebellion and reaction against former Majapahit Imperialism against Sulu which Majapahit briefly occupied. The religion ofIslam entered the island in the 10th century,[62] following the arrival of Muslim traders who later converted many indigenous peoples in the coastal areas.[63]
The Sultanate of Brunei declared independence from Majapahit following the death of the Majapahit emperor in the mid-14th century. During its golden age underBolkiah from the 15th to the 17th century, the Bruneian sultanate ruled almost the entire coastal area of Borneo (lending its name to the island due to its influence in the region) and several islands in the Philippines.[64] During the 1450s,Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab born inJohor,[65] arrived in Sulu from Malacca. In 1457, he founded theSultanate of Sulu; he titled himself as "Paduka Maulana Mahasari Sharif Sultan Hashem Abu Bakr".[66] Following its independence in 1578 from Brunei's influence,[67] Sulu began to expand itsthalassocracy to parts of the northern Borneo.[68][69] Both the sultanates who ruled northern Borneo had traditionally engaged in trade with China by means of the frequently-arriving Chinesejunks.[70][71] Despite the thalassocracy of the sultanates, Borneo's interior region remained free from the rule of any kingdoms.[72]
British flag hoisted for the first time on the island ofLabuan, on 24 December 1846.
After thefall of Malacca in 1511, Portuguese merchants traded regularly with Borneo, and especially with Brunei from 1530.[73] Having visited Brunei's capital, the Portuguese described the place as surrounded by astone wall.[74] While Borneo was seen as rich, the Portuguese did not make any attempts to conquer it.[73] The Spanish had sailed from Spanish America and conquered the Brunei's provinces in the Philippines and incorporated it into the Mexico-CenteredViceroyalty of New Spain. The Spanish visit to Brunei led to theCastilian War in 1578. The British began to trade withSambas of southern Borneo in 1609, while the Dutch only began their trade in 1644: to Banjar and Martapura, also in the southern Borneo.[75] The Dutch tried to settle the island ofBalambangan, north of Borneo, in the second half of the 18th century, but withdrew by 1797.[76] In 1812, the sultan in southern Borneo ceded his forts to theBritish East India Company. The British, led byStamford Raffles, then tried to establish an intervention in Sambas but failed. Although they managed to defeat the sultanate the next year and declared a blockade on all ports in Borneo except Brunei,Banjarmasin andPontianak, the project was cancelled by the British governor-generalLord Minto in India as it was too expensive.[76] At the beginning of British and Dutch exploration on the island, they described the island of Borneo as full ofhead hunters, with the indigenous in the interior practisingcannibalism,[77] and the waters around the island infested withpirates, especially between the north eastern Borneo and the southern Philippines.[78][79] TheMalay andSea Dayak pirates preyed on maritime shipping in the waters between Singapore and Hong Kong from their haven in Borneo,[80] along with the attacks byIllanuns of theMoro pirates from the southern Philippines, such as in theBattle off Mukah.[81]
Map of the island, divided between the British and the Dutch, 1898. The present boundaries of Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei are largely inherited from British and Dutch colonial rules.
The Dutch began to intervene in the southern part of the island upon resuming contact in 1815, postingresidents to Banjarmasin, Pontianak and Sambas andassistant-residents to Landak and Mampawa.[82][83] The Sultanate of Brunei in 1842 granted large parts of land in Sarawak to the British adventurerJames Brooke, as a reward for his help in quelling a local rebellion. Brooke established theRaj of Sarawak and was recognised as its rajah after paying a fee to the sultanate. He established a monarchy, and the Brooke dynasty (through his nephew and great-nephew) ruled Sarawak for 100 years; the leaders were known as theWhite Rajahs.[84][85] Brooke also acquired the island ofLabuan forGreat Britain in 1846 through theTreaty of Labuan with the sultan of Brunei,Omar Ali Saifuddin II on 18 December 1846.[86] The region of northern Borneo came under the administration ofNorth Borneo Chartered Company following the acquisition of territory from the Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu by a German businessman and adventurer namedBaron von Overbeck, before it was passed to the British Dent brothers (comprisingAlfred Dent and Edward Dent).[69][87] Further expansion by the British continued into the Borneo interior.[88] This led the 26th sultan of Brunei,Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin to appeal the British to halt such efforts, and as a result a Treaty of Protection was signed in 1888, rendering Brunei a British protectorate.[89]
Before the acquisition by the British, the Americans also managed to establish their temporary presence in northwestern Borneo after acquiring a parcel of land from the Sultanate of Brunei. A company known asAmerican Trading Company of Borneo was formed byJoseph William Torrey,Thomas Bradley Harris and several Chinese investors, establishing a colony named "Ellena" in theKimanis area.[90] The colony failed and was abandoned, due to denials of financial backing, especially by the US government, and to diseases and riots among the workers.[91] Before Torrey left, he managed to sell the land to the German businessman, Overbeck.[92] Meanwhile, the Germans under William Frederick Schuck were awarded a parcel of land in northeastern Borneo of the Sandakan Bay from the Sultanate of Sulu where he conducted business and exported large quantities of arms,opium, textiles and tobacco to Sulu before the land was also passed to Overbeck by the sultanate.[93][94]
Prior to the recognition of Spanish presence in the Philippine archipelago, a protocol known as theMadrid Protocol of 1885 was signed between the governments of the United Kingdom, Germany and Spain inMadrid to cement Spanish influence and recognise their sovereignty over the Sultanate of Sulu—in return for Spain's relinquishing its claim to the former possessions of the sultanate in northern Borneo.[95][96] The British administration then established the first railway network in northern Borneo, known as theNorth Borneo Railway.[97][98] During this time, the British sponsored a large number of Chinese workers to migrate to northern Borneo to work in European plantation and mines,[99] and the Dutch followed suit to increase their economic production.[100] By 1888, North Borneo, Sarawak and Brunei in northern Borneo had become Britishprotectorate.[101] The area in southern Borneo was made Dutch protectorate in 1891.[77] The Dutch who already claimed the whole Borneo were asked by Britain to delimit their boundaries between the two colonial territories to avoid further conflicts.[101] The British and Dutch governments had signed theAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 to exchange trading ports inMalay Peninsula andSumatra that were under their controls and assert spheres of influence. This resulted in indirectly establishing British- and Dutch-controlled areas in the north (Malay Peninsula) and south (Sumatra and Riau Islands) respectively.[102]
During World War II, Japanese forces gained control and occupied most areas of Borneo from 1941 to 1945. In the first stage of the war, the British saw the Japanese advance to Borneo as motivated by political and territorial ambitions rather than economic factors.[106] The occupation drove many people in the coastal towns to the interior, searching for food and escaping the Japanese.[107] The Chinese residents in Borneo, especially with theSino-Japanese War inMainland China mostly resisted the Japanese occupation.[108] Following the formation of resistance movements in northern Borneo such as theJesselton Revolt, many innocent indigenous and Chinese people were executed by the Japanese for their alleged involvement.[109]
In Kalimantan, the Japanese also killed many Malay intellectuals, executing all the Malay sultans of West Kalimantan in thePontianak incidents, together with Chinese people who were already against the Japanese for suspecting them to be threats.[110] Sultan Muhammad Ibrahim Shafi ud-din II ofSambas was executed in 1944. The sultanate was thereafter suspended and replaced by a Japanese council.[111] The Japanese also set-upPusat Tenaga Rakjat (PUTERA)[112] in the Indonesian archipelago in 1943, although it was abolished the following year when it became too nationalistic.[113] Some of the Indonesian nationalist likeSukarno andHatta who had returned from Dutch exile began to co-operate with the Japanese. Shortly after his release, Sukarno became president of the Central Advisory Council, an advisory council for south Borneo,Celebes, andLesser Sunda, set up in February 1945.[113]
After thefall of Singapore, the Japanese sent several thousand of British and Australianprisoners of war to camps in Borneo such asBatu Lintang camp. From theSandakan camp site, only six of some 2,500 prisoners survived after they were forced to march in an event known as theSandakan Death March.[114] In addition, of the total of 17,488Javanese labourers brought in by the Japanese during the occupation, only 1,500 survived mainly due to starvation, harsh working conditions and maltreatment.[107] The Dayak and other indigenous people played a role inguerrilla warfare against the occupying forces, particularly in theKapit Division. They temporarily revived headhunting of Japanese toward the end of the war,[115] with AlliedZ Special Unit provided assistance to them.[116] Australia contributed significantly to the liberation of Borneo.[117] TheAustralian Imperial Force was sent to Borneo to fight off the Japanese.[118] Together with other Allies, the islandwas completely liberated in 1945.
In May 1945, officials in Tokyo suggested that whether northern Borneo should be included in the proposed new country of Indonesia should be separately determined based on the desires of its indigenous people and following the disposition ofMalaya.[119] Sukarno andMohammad Yamin meanwhile continuously advocated for aGreater Indonesian republic.[120] Towards the end of the war, Japan decided to give an early independence to a new proposed country of Indonesia on 17 July 1945, with an Independence Committee meeting scheduled for 19 August 1945.[113] However, following thesurrender of Japan to the Allied forces, the meeting was shelved. Sukarno and Hatta continued the plan by unilaterally declaring independence, although the Dutch tried to retake their colonial possession in Borneo.[113]
The southern part of the island achieved its independence through theProclamation of Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945. The southern part sawguerrilla conflicts followed by Dutch blockades to cut supplies for nationalist within the region.[121] While nationalist guerrillas supporting the inclusion of southern Borneo in the new Indonesian republic were active in Ketapang, and to lesser extent in Sambas where they rallied with the red-white flag which became theflag of Indonesia, most of the Chinese residents in southern Borneo expected to be liberated byChinese Nationalist troops from mainland China and to integrate their districts as an overseas province ofChina.[122] Meanwhile, Sarawak and Sabah in northern Borneo became separate British crown colonies in 1946.[123][124]
TheQueen's Own Highlanders 1st Battalion conduct a patrol to search for enemy positions in the jungle of Brunei.
In 1961, Prime MinisterTunku Abdul Rahman of the independentFederation of Malaya desired to unite Malaya, the British colonies ofSarawak,North Borneo,Singapore and the protectorate ofBrunei under the proposedFederation of Malaysia.[125] The idea was heavily opposed by the governments in both Indonesia and the Philippines as well from communist sympathisers and nationalists in Borneo.[126][127] Sukarno, as the president of the new republic, perceiving the British trying to maintain their presence in northern Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, decided to launch a military infiltration, later known as theconfrontation, from 1962 to 1969.[128] As a response to the growing opposition, the British deployed their armed forces to guard their colonies against Indonesian and communist revolts.[129] Australia andNew Zealand also participated in these measures.[130][131]
The Philippines opposed the newly proposed federation, claiming the eastern part of North Borneo (today the Malaysian state of Sabah) as part of its territory as a former possession of theSultanate of Sulu.[132] The Philippine government mostly based their claim on the Sultanate of Sulu'scession agreement with the British North Borneo Company, as by now the sultanate had come under the jurisdiction of the Philippine republican administration, which therefore should inherit the Sulu former territories. The Philippine government also claimed that the heirs of the sultanate had ceded all their territorial rights to the republic.[133]
The proposed flag of theNorth Borneo Federation, an attempt to establish a sovereign state by unifying North Borneo, Brunei, and Sarawak byA. M. Azahari
The Sultanate of Brunei at first welcomed the proposal of a new larger federation.[134] Meanwhile, theBrunei People's Party led byA.M. Azahari desired to reunify Brunei, Sarawak and North Borneo into one federation known as theNorth Borneo Federation (Malay:Kesatuan Negara Kalimantan Utara), where thesultan of Brunei would be the head of state for the federation—though Azahari had his own intention to abolish the Brunei monarchy, to make Brunei more democratic, and to integrate the territory and other former British colonies in Borneo into Indonesia, with the support from the latter government.[135] This directly led to theBrunei Revolt, which thwarted Azahari's attempt and forced him to escape to Indonesia. Brunei withdrew from being part of the new Federation of Malaysia due to some disagreements on other issues while political leaders in Sarawak and North Borneo continued to favour inclusion in a larger federation.[136]
With the continuous opposition from Indonesia and the Philippines, theCobbold Commission was established to discover the feeling of the native populations in northern Borneo; it found the people greatly in favour of federation, with various stipulations.[137][138] The federation was successfully achieved with the inclusion of northern Borneo through theMalaysia Agreement on 16 September 1963.[139] To this day, the area in northern Borneo is still subjected to attacks by Moro pirates since the 18th century and militant from groups such asAbu Sayyaf since 2000 in the frequentcross border attacks. During the administration of Philippine presidentFerdinand Marcos, Marcos made some attempts to destabilise the state of Sabah,[140] although his plan failed and resulted in theJabidah massacre and later theinsurgency in the southern Philippines.[141][142]
Borneo had 23,053,723 inhabitants (in 2020 Censuses),[1][2] a population density of 30.8 inhabitants per square kilometre (80 inhabitants per square mile). Most of the population lives in coastal cities, although the hinterland has small towns and villages along the rivers.
aMay includes the offshore islands and its populations bDue to its size, Brunei is further subdivided into 4 districts (mukim), which is similar to the size of smaller administrative units in Indonesia (kecamatan) and Malaysia (daerah)
20 largest cities and towns in Borneo by population
Cities and major towns in BorneoSamarinda, the most populous and largest city on the island of BorneoBalikpapan, the second most populous and largest city on Borneo
YoungDayak dancers in their traditional clothes, Pampang Cultural Village,Samarinda, East Kalimantan, IndonesiaA group ofBruneian men inBaju Melayu; the ethnic Malays of Borneo primarily inhabit the coastal areas of the island.
Borneo's economy depends mainly on agriculture, logging and mining,oil and gas, andecotourism.[156] Brunei's economy is highly dependent on the oil and gas production sector, and the country has become one of the largest oil producers in Southeast Asia. The Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak are both top exporters oftimber.[156] Sabah is also known as the agricultural producer ofrubber,cacao, and vegetables, and for its fisheries, while Sabah, Sarawak and Labuan exportliquefied natural gas (LNG) and petroleum. The Indonesian provinces of Kalimantan are mostly dependent onmining sectors despite also being involved in logging and oil and gas explorations.[156]
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Ghazally Ismail (1996–2001).A Scientific Journey Through Borneo. Kota Samarahan:Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.
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Dennis Lau (1999).Borneo: a photographic journey. Travelcom Asia.ISBN978-983-99431-1-5.
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Less S. Hall; Greg Richards; Mohamad Tajuddin Abdullah (2002), "The bats of Niah National Park, Sarawak",The Sarawak Museum Journal
Mohd Azlan J.; Ibnu Martono; Agus P. Kartono; Mohamad Tajuddin Abdullah (2003), "Diversity, Relative Abundance and Conservation of Chiropterans in Kayan Mentarang National Park, East Kalimantan, Indonesia",The Sarawak Museum Journal
Mohd Tajuddin Abdullah (2003),Biogeography and variation of Cynopterus brachyotis in Southeast Asia (PhD thesis ed.), Brisbane:University of Queensland
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