Until 1948, Bohemia was an administrative unit of Czechoslovakia as one of its "lands" (země).[7] Since then, administrative reforms have replaced self-governing lands with a modified system of "regions" (kraje), which do not follow the borders of the historical Czech lands (or the regions from the 1960 and 2000 reforms).[7] However, the three lands are mentioned in the preamble of theConstitution of the Czech Republic: "We, citizens of the Czech Republic in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia..."[8]
Bohemia had an area of 52,065 km2 (20,102 sq mi), and today is home to about 6.9 million of the Czech Republic's 10.9 million inhabitants. Bohemia was bordered in the south byUpper andLower Austria (both inAustria), in the west byBavaria (inGermany), and in the north bySaxony andLusatia (in Germany andPoland, respectively), in the northeast bySilesia (in Poland), and in the east byMoravia (also part of the Czech Republic). Bohemia's borders were mostly marked by mountain ranges such as theBohemian Forest, theOre Mountains, and theGiant Mountains; the Bohemian-Moravian border roughly follows theElbe-Danubewatershed.
In the second century BC, theRomans competed for dominance innorthern Italy with various peoples, including theGauls-Celtic tribeBoii. The Romans defeated the Boii at theBattle of Placentia (194 BC) and theBattle of Mutina (193 BC). Afterward, many of the Boii retreated north across the Alps.[11] Much later Roman authors refer to the area they had once occupied (the "desert of the Boii", asPliny andStrabo called it[12]) asBoiohaemum. The earliest mention[11] is inTacitus'Germania 28 (written at the end of the first century AD),[13] and later mentions of the same name are in Strabo andVelleius Paterculus.[14] The name appears to consist of the tribal nameBoio- plus theProto-Germanic noun *haimaz "home" (whence Gothichaims, GermanHeim,Heimat, Englishhome), indicating a Proto-Germanic*Bajahaimaz.
Bohemia, like neighboringBavaria, is named after theBoii, a largeCeltic nation known to the Romans for their migrations and settlement in northern Italy and other places. Another part of the nation moved west with theHelvetii into southern France, one of the events leading to the interventions of Julius Caesar's Gaulish campaign of 58 BC. The emigration of the Helvetii and Boii left southern Germany and Bohemia a lightly inhabited "desert" into whichSuebic peoples arrived, speaking Germanic languages, and became dominant over remaining Celtic groups. To the south, over the Danube, the Romans extended their empire, and to the southeast, in present-day Hungary, wereDacian peoples.
In the area of modern Bohemia, theMarcomanni and other Suebic groups were led by their king,Marobodus, after being defeated by Roman forces in Germany. He took advantage of the natural defenses provided by its mountains and forests. They were able to maintain a strong alliance with neighboring tribes, including (at different times) theLugii,Quadi,Hermunduri,Semnones, andBuri, which was sometimes partly controlled by theRoman Empire and sometimes in conflict with it; for example, in the second century, they foughtMarcus Aurelius.
In late classical times and the earlyMiddle Ages, two new Suebic groupings appeared west of Bohemia in southern Germany, theAlemanni (in the Helvetian desert) and the Bavarians (Baiuvarii). Many Suebic tribes from the Bohemian region took part in such movements westward, settling as far away as Spain and Portugal. With them were also tribes who had pushed from the east, such as theVandals andAlans.
Other groups pushed southward towardPannonia. The last known mention of the Kingdom of the Marcomanni, concerning a queen namedFritigil, is from the fourth century, and she was thought to have lived in or near Pannonia. The SuebianLangobardi, who moved over many generations from theBaltic Sea, via the Elbe and Pannonia to Italy, recorded in atribal history a time spent in "Bainaib".
After theMigration Period, Bohemia was partially repopulated around the sixth century, and eventuallySlavic tribes arrived from the east, and their language began to replace the older Germanic, Celtic, andSarmatian ones. These are precursors of today's Czechs, but the exact amount of Slavic immigration is a subject of debate. The Slavic influx came in two or three waves. The first came from the southeast and east, when the GermanicLombards left Bohemia (circa 568 AD). Soon after, from the 630s to 660s, the territory was taken bySamo's tribal confederation. His death marked the end of the old "Slavonic" confederation, the second attempt to establish such a Slavonic union afterCarantania inCarinthia.
Other sources (Descriptio civitatum et regionum ad septentrionalem plagam Danubii, Bavaria, 800–850) divide the population of Bohemia into the Merehani, Marharaii, Beheimare (Bohemani), and Fraganeo. (The suffix-ani or-ni means "people of-"). Christianity first appeared in the early 9th century, but became dominant only in the 10th or 11th century.
The 9th century was crucial for Bohemia's future. Themanorial system sharply declined, as it did in Bavaria. The influence of the central Fraganeo-Czechs grew, as a result of the important cultic center in their territory. They were Slavic-speaking and contributed to the transformation of diverse neighboring populations into a new nation named and led by them with a united "Slavic" ethnic consciousness.[20]
Bohemia was made a part of the early Slavic state ofGreat Moravia, under the rule ofSvatopluk I (r. 870–894). After Svatopluk's death Great Moravia was weakened by years of internal conflict and constant warfare, ultimately collapsing and fragmenting because of continual incursions by invading nomadicMagyars. Bohemia's initial incorporation into the Moravian Empire resulted in the extensiveChristianization of the population. A native monarchy arose, and Bohemia came under the rule of thePřemyslid dynasty, which ruled the Czech lands for several hundred years.
The Přemyslids secured their frontiers after the Moravian state's collapse by entering into a state of semivassalage to theFrankish rulers. The alliance was facilitated by Bohemia's conversion to Christianity in the 9th century. Continuing close relations were developed with theEast Frankish Kingdom, which devolved from theCarolingian Empire, intoEast Francia, eventually becoming theHoly Roman Empire.
After a decisive victory of the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia over invading Magyars in the 955Battle of Lechfeld,Boleslaus I of Bohemia was grantedMoravia by German emperorOtto the Great. Bohemia remained a largely autonomous state under the Holy Roman Empire for several decades. The jurisdiction of theHoly Roman Empire was definitively reasserted whenJaromír of Bohemia was granted fief of the Kingdom of Bohemia by EmperorKing Henry II of the Holy Roman Empire, with the promise that he hold it as a vassal once he reoccupied Prague with a German army in 1004, ending the rule ofBolesław I of Poland.
The first to use the title of "King of Bohemia" were the Přemyslid dukesVratislav II (1085) andVladislaus II (1158), but their heirs returned to the title ofduke. The title of king became hereditary underOttokar I (1198). His grandsonOttokar II (king from 1253 to 1278) conquered a short-lived empire that contained modernAustria andSlovenia. Substantial German immigration began in the mid-13th century, as the court sought to replace losses from the briefMongol invasion of Europe in 1241. Germans settled primarily along Bohemia's northern, western, and southern borders, although many lived in towns throughout the kingdom.
TheHouse of Luxembourg accepted the invitation to the Bohemian throne with the marriage to the Přemyslid heiress, Elizabeth and the crowning subsequent ofJohn I of Bohemia (in the Czech Republic known asJan Lucemburský) in 1310. His son,Charles IV, became King of Bohemia in 1346. He foundedCharles University in Prague, Central Europe's first university, two years later.
His reign brought Bohemia to its peak both politically and in total area, resulting in his being the first king of Bohemia to be electedHoly Roman Emperor. Under his rule, theBohemian crown controlled such diverse lands asMoravia,Silesia,Upper Lusatia andLower Lusatia, Brandenburg, an area aroundNuremberg called New Bohemia,Luxembourg, and several small towns scattered around Germany.
From the 13th century on, settlements of Germans developed throughout Bohemia, making Bohemia a bilingual country. The Germans brought mining technology to the mountainous regions of theSudetes. In the mining town of Sankt Joachimsthal (nowJáchymov), famous coins called Joachimsthalers were coined, which gave their name to thethaler and thedollar.
Meanwhile,Prague German intermediated betweenUpper German andEast Central German, influencing the foundations of modern standard German. At the same time and place, the teachings ofJan Hus, therector of Charles University and a prominent reformer and religious thinker, influenced the rise of modern Czech.
The radical Hussites became known asTaborites, after the town ofTábor that became their center.
During the ecumenicalCouncil of Constance in 1415, Hus was sentenced to be burnt at the stake as aheretic. The verdict was passed even though Hus was granted formal protection by EmperorSigismund of Luxembourg before the journey. Hus was invited to attend the council to defend himself and the Czech positions in the religious court, but with the emperor's approval, he was executed on 6 July 1415. His execution and five consecutive papal crusades against his followers forced the Bohemians to defend themselves in theHussite Wars.
The uprising against imperial forces was led by a former mercenary,Jan Žižka of Trocnov. As the leader of the Hussite armies, he used innovative tactics and weapons, such as howitzers, pistols, and fortified wagons, which were revolutionary for the time and established Žižka as a great general who never lost a battle.
After Žižka's death,Prokop the Great took over the army's command, and under him the Hussites were victorious for another ten years, to Europe's terror. The Hussite cause gradually splintered into two main factions, the moderateUtraquists and the more fanaticTaborites. TheUtraquists began to lay the groundwork for an agreement with theCatholic Church and found the more radical views of the Taborites distasteful. Additionally, with general war-weariness and yearning for order, the Utraquists were able to eventually defeat the Taborites in theBattle of Lipany in 1434. Sigismund said after the battle that "only the Bohemians could defeat the Bohemians."
Despite an apparent victory for the Catholics, the Bohemian Utraquists were still strong enough to negotiatefreedom of religion in 1436. That happened in the so-calledCompacts of Basel, declaring peace and freedom between Catholics and Utraquists. It lasted only a short time, asPope Pius II declared the compacts invalid in 1462.
In 1458,George of Poděbrady was elected to the Bohemian throne. He is remembered for his attempt to set up a pan-European "Christian League" that would form all the states of Europe into a community based on religion. In the process of negotiating, he appointedZdeněk Lev of Rožmitál to tour the European courts and to conduct the talks. The negotiations were not completed because George's position was substantially damaged over time by his deteriorating relationship with the Pope.
Bohemia enjoyed religious freedom between 1436 and 1620 and became one of the most liberal countries of the Christian world during that period. In 1609, Holy Roman EmperorRudolf II, who made Prague again the capital of theempire at the time, himself a Roman Catholic, was moved by the Bohemian nobility to publishMaiestas Rudolphina, which confirmed the olderConfessio Bohemica of 1575.
After Frederick's defeat in theBattle of White Mountain in 1620, 27 Bohemian estates leaders andJan Jesenius, rector of theCharles University of Prague, were executed on Prague's Old Town Square on 21 June 1621, and the rest were exiled from the country; their lands were given to Catholic loyalists (mostly of Bavarian and Saxon origin). That ended the pro-reformation movement in Bohemia and the role of Prague as ruling city of the Holy Roman Empire.
In the so-called "renewed constitution" of 1627, German was established as a second official language in the Czech lands. Czech formally remained the kingdom's first language, but both German and Latin were widely spoken among the ruling classes, although German became increasingly dominant, and Czech was spoken in much of the countryside.
Detailed map of Bohemia, 1742
Bohemia's formal independence was further jeopardized when the BohemianDiet approved administrative reform in 1749. It included the indivisibility of theHabsburg Empire and the centralization of rule, which essentially meant the merging of the Royal Bohemian Chancellery with the Austrian Chancellery.
At the end of the 18th century, theCzech National Revival movement, in cooperation with part of the Bohemian aristocracy, started a campaign for restoration of the kingdom's historic rights, whereby Czech was to regain its historical role and replace German as the language of administration. Theenlightened absolutism ofJoseph II andLeopold II, who introduced minor language concessions, showed promise for the Czech movement, but many of these reforms were later rescinded. During theRevolution of 1848, many Czech nationalists called for autonomy for Bohemia from Habsburg Austria, but the revolutionaries were defeated. At the same time, German-speaking towns elected representatives for thefirst German Parliament at Frankfurt. Towns betweenKarlsbad andReichenberg chose leftist representatives, whileEger,Rumburg, andTroppau elected conservative representatives.[22] The old Bohemian Diet, one of the last remnants of the independence, was dissolved, although Czech experienced a rebirth asromantic nationalism developed among the Czechs.
In 1861, a new elected Bohemian Diet was established. The renewal of the old Bohemian Crown (Kingdom of Bohemia,Margraviate of Moravia, andDuchy of Upper and Lower Silesia) became the official political program of both Czech liberal politicians and the majority of Bohemian aristocracy ("state rights program"), while parties representing the German minority and small part of the aristocracy proclaimed their loyalty to the centralist Constitution (so-called "Verfassungstreue").
After Austria's defeat in theAustro-Prussian War in 1866, Hungarian politicians achieved theAustro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, ostensibly creating equality between the empire's Austrian and Hungarian halves. An attempt by the Czechs to create a tripartite monarchy (Austria-Hungary-Bohemia) failed in 1871. The "state-rights program" remained the official platform of all Czech political parties (except for social democrats) until 1918.
Under the state-rights program, appealing to the stability of Bohemia's borders over many centuries, the Czech emancipation movement claimed the right to the whole of the Bohemian lands over the Germans' right to the lands, amounting to a third of Bohemia, where they formed the majority.[23]
Bohemia (westernmost area) in Czechoslovakia 1918–1938Linguistic map of interwar Czechoslovakia (c. 1930)
AfterWorld War I, theGerman Bohemians demanded that the regions with German-speaking majority be included in aGerman state. But Czech political leaders claimed the entire Bohemian lands, including majority German-speaking areas, for Czechoslovakia.[24] By the end of October, bilingual towns had been occupied by Czech forces. By end of November, many purely German-speaking towns had been occupied.[25] German or Austrian troops, bound by the ceasefire agreement, did not support Bohemian German self-defense, while the Czechoslovak army, anEntente army, could freely operate.[26] The absorption of the German-speaking areas inCzechoslovakia was hence afait accompli.[27]
As a result, all of Bohemia (as the largest and most populous land) became the core of the newly formed country ofCzechoslovakia, which combined Bohemia,Moravia,Czech Silesia,Upper Hungary (present-daySlovakia) andCarpathian Ruthenia into one state.[28] Under its first president,Tomáš Masaryk, Czechoslovakia became a liberal democratic republic, but serious issues emerged regarding the Czech majority's relationship with theGerman and Hungarian minorities.
After theMunich Agreement in 1938, the border regions of Bohemia historically inhabited predominantly by ethnic Germans (theSudetenland) were annexed toNazi Germany. The remnants of Bohemia and Moravia were then annexed by Germany in 1939, while the Slovak lands became the separateSlovak Republic, a puppet state of Nazi Germany. From 1939 to 1945, Bohemia (without the Sudetenland) and Moravia formed the GermanProtectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.
DuringWorld War II, the Germans operated theTheresienstadt Ghetto for Jews, the Dulag Luft Ost,Stalag IV-C and Stalag 359prisoner-of-war camps forFrench, British, Belgian, Serbian, Dutch, Slovak, Soviet, Romanian, Italian and otherAllied POWs, and the Ilag IV camp for interned civilians from western Allied countries in the region.[29] There were also 17subcamps of theFlossenbürg concentration camp, in which both men and women, mostlyPolish, Soviet and Jewish, but also French, Yugoslav, Czech,Romani and of several other ethnicities, were imprisoned and subjected toforced labor,[30] and 16 subcamps of theGross-Rosen concentration camp, in which men and women, mostly Polish and Jewish, but also Czechs, Russians, and other people, were similarly imprisoned and subjected to forced labor.[31]
Nazi authorities brutally suppressed any open opposition to German occupation, and many Czech patriots were executed as a result. In 1942, the Czechoslovak resistanceassassinated Reinhard Heydrich, and in reprisal German forces murdered the population of a whole village,Lidice. In the spring of 1945, there weredeath marches of prisoners of several subcamps of the Flossenbürg, Gross-Rosen andBuchenwald concentration camps in Saxony and Silesia, and Allied POWs from camps in Austria reached the region.[30][31][32][33]
In May 1945, AlliedAmerican,[34] Polish,[35]Czechoslovak, Soviet and Romanian troops captured the region, which was then restored to Czechoslovakia. After the war ended in 1945, after initial plans to cede lands to Germany or to create German-speaking cantons had been abandoned,[23] the vast majority of the Bohemian Germans wereexpelled by order of the reestablished Czechoslovak central government, based on thePotsdam Agreement. The Bohemian Germans' property was confiscated by the Czech authorities, and according to contemporary estimates, amounted to a third of the Czechoslovak national income. Germans who were valued for their skills were allowed to stay to pass on their knowledge to the Czech migrants.[23] The expulsion severely depopulated the area, and from then on, locales were called only their Czech names, regardless of their previous demographics. The resettlement of the formerly German-settled areas allowed many poorer people to acquire property, thus "equalizing" Czechoslovak society.[23]
The Communist Party won the most votes in free elections, but not asimple majority.Klement Gottwald, the communist leader, became prime minister of a coalition government.
In February 1948, the non-communist members of the government resigned in protest against arbitrary measures by the communists and their Soviet protectors in many of the state's institutions. Gottwald and the communists responded with acoup d'état and installed a pro-Soviet authoritarian state. In 1949, Bohemia ceased to be an administrative unit of Czechoslovakia, as the country was divided into administrative regions that did not follow the historical borders.
After theVelvet Divorce in 1993, the territory of Bohemia remained in the Czech Republic. The newConstitution of the Czech Republic provided for higher administrative units to be established, providing for the possibility of Bohemia as an administrative unit, but did not specify the form they would take. A 1997 constitutional act rejected the restoration of self-governing historical Czech lands and decided on the regional system that has been in use since 2000.[36]Petr Pithart, former Czech prime minister and president of theSenate at the time, remained one of the main advocates of the land system,[37] claiming that the primary reason for its refusal was the fear of possible Moravian separatism.[37]
In April 2025, a significant gold treasure was unearthed in north-eastern Bohemia, beneath Zvičina Hill. The hoard, weighing approximately 7 kilograms (15 lb), includes nearly 4 kilograms (8.8 lb) of gold coins, with an estimated value exceeding CZK 7.5 million. Discovered hidden in a forested area, this find is considered one of the most remarkable in recent Czech history. The coins are believed to date back to the 18th and 19th centuries, offering valuable insights into the region's historical economy and trade practices. The discovery is currently under examination by experts to determine its origins and historical significance.[40]
Zittau (Czech:Žitava) andOstritz (Czech:Ostřice) in modern south-easternSaxony were initially a part of Bohemia in theMiddle Ages[41] (and brieflyLower Silesia in 1319–1346).[42] Žitava was a Bohemian royal city, granted city rights by KingOttokar II of Bohemia in 1255.[42] In 1346, it co-formed theLusatian League along with five most dominantUpper Lusatian cities, which were also under Bohemian rule, and had closer economic interests with those cities since.[41][42] Žitava was not formally annexed from Bohemia to Upper Lusatia, however, it shared the history of Upper Lusatia since,[42] and was annexed from the Kingdom of Bohemia by theElectorate of Saxony in 1635. The coat of arms of Zittau is a remnant of the city's ties to both Bohemia and Lower Silesia, as it contains theBohemian lion and the Lower SilesianPiast Eagle.
In 1945, some 4,000 Czechs were registered in Zittau, and formed a Czech National Committee.[43] The Czechs made an attempt to reintegrate the city with Bohemia, and thus Czechoslovakia, but the efforts were decisively rejected in 1948.[43]
The last attempt occurred in May 1945, when Czechoslovakia tried to annex the area. The Czechs argued that because of the smallCzech minority present in the western part of theKłodzko Valley, which was called the region's "Czech Corner", the area should go over to Czechoslovakia instead of being assigned to Poland, as no relevant Polish minority lived in the area. Pressure brought on by theSoviet Union led to a ceasing of military operations, with the Czech minority being expelled to Germany and Czechoslovakia. According tocanon law of theRoman Catholic Church, the area remained part of theRoman Catholic Archdiocese of Prague until 1972.
Capitalizing on interest regarding the Kladsko area in the Czech national psyche, a special tourist area in theNáchod District has been designated as the Kladsko Borderland Tourist Area[44] (tourism district;Czech:turistická oblast Kladské pomezí). The area, entirely within theCzech Republic, was formerly known as theJirásek's Region (Czech:Jiráskův kraj),Adršpach rocks (Czech:Adršpašské skály).
A panorama ofKłodzko, the capital city ofKłodzko Land, which is referred to as "Little Prague"
^Mykhailo Hrushevsky (1997) [1898]. Andrzej Poppe; Frank E. Sysyn; Uliana M. Pasiczny (eds.).History of Ukraine-Rus'. Volume 1: From Prehistory to the Eleventh Century. Translated by Marta Skorupsky. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press. pp. 161–162.ISBN978-1-895571-19-6.Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved19 June 2019.The second detail in Constantine's account, which supposedly points to the eastern Carpathians, is his reference to a 'place called Boiki (Boiki)' on the border with the White Serbs; for a long time this was considered – and some consider it still – to be a reference to the Ukrainian Boikos. That is very unlikely, however, because the location is too far east for the Serbs, nor has any indication been found that the name of the Boikos was ever in such wide usage. So all we are left with to suggest the existence of a Rus' Croatia in the Carpathians is the Primary Chronicle ... Published by H. Jireiek, the Karten zur Geschichte (1897) also show the 'Boiki' on the Dnister (map 4). It is more likely that Boiki is a distorted variant of the name Boiohem, or Bohemia, as most scholars now believe...
^Gyula Moravcsik, ed. (1949).De administrando imperio. Pázmány Péter Tudományegyetemi Görög Filoĺ́ogiai Intézet. pp. 130–131.Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved19 June 2019....should be modern Saxony, where remnants of Serbs (Sorbs) are still living. The name 'Boiki' has been much disputed over by specialists ... has proved that the 'place called Boiki' can only be Bohemia. Grégoire (L'Origine, 98) rejects Skok's proposal to read 'Boioi', and suggests 'Boimi'. C.'s account contains one serious inexactitude: namely, the statement that the Serbs lived 'in a place called by them Boiki'. Although we have documentary proof of the existence of Croats in Bohemia, we have none to suggest that Serbs lived there. Bohemia was in fact another neighbor of White Serbia
^Acta archaeologica Carpathica. Państwowe Wydawn. Naukowe. 1999. p. 163.Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved19 June 2019.Wielu spośród nich osiedlili królowie węgierscy u zachodnich granic swego królestwa; morze Ciemne = Bałtyk; Boiki = Bohemia, czyli Czechy...
^Arnold Suppan (2008). ""Germans" in the Austrian Empire and in the Monarchy". In Ingrao; Szabo (eds.).The Germans and the East. Purdue University Press. p. 156.
^abcdvon Arburg, Adrian. "Abschied und Neubeginn".Als die Deutschen weg waren Was nach der Vertreibung geschah: Ostpreußen, Sudetenland, Schlesien (in German).
^Murdock, Caitlin (2010).Changing Places: Society, Culture, and Territory in the Saxon-Bohemian Borderlands, 1870-1946. University of Michigan Press. p. 100.: "Czech political leaders claimed the entire Bohemian crown lands, including majority German-speaking areas, for Czechoslovakia. In the nineteenth century, Czech nationalist activists had used Bohemia’s historical status as an independent kingdom to argue for Bohemian states rights (Staatsrecht/státní pravo) within the Habsburg Empire"
^Hans Mommsen; Dušan Kováč; Jiří Malíř, eds. (2001). "Im Widerstreit der Selbstbestimmungsansprüche: Vom Habsburgerstaat zur Tschechoslowakei - die Deutschen der böhmischen Länder 1918 bis 1919".Der Erste Weltkrieg und die Beziehungen zwischen Tschechen, Slowaken, und Deutschen. Klartext. pp. 197–198.: "Schon am 30. Oktober 1918 erreichten den Statsrat erste Meldungen über die teschcische und südslawische Besetzung zweisprachiger Orte entlang der Sprachgrenze. [...] Kaum war der Entschluß zu den Provinzgründungen publik, da begann die tschechische Besetzung von mehrheitlich- oder ausschließlich-deutschen Orten an der Peripherie des deutschen Anspruchsgebiets"
^Hans Mommsen; Dušan Kováč; Jiří Malíř, eds. (2001). "Im Widerstreit der Selbstbestimmungsansprüche: vom Habsburgerstaat zur Tschechoslowakei–die Deutschen der böhmischen Länder 1918 bis 1919".Der Erste Weltkrieg und die Beziehungen zwischen Tschechen, Slowaken und Deutschen. Klartext. p. 203.: "Die Ausweitung des Konfliktes zum förmlichen Krieg zwischen Deutschösterreich und der Tschechoslowakei war jedoch mit den gesamtsataatlichen Zielen unvereinbar. Deutschösterreich unterstand den Bedingungen des Wafenstillstandes, während andereseits die Tschehslowakei zu den verbündeten Siegersaaten zählte und daher ihre Armee als Ententeheer laut Waffenstilland Beweungsfreiheit in ganz Österreich-Ungarn genoss
^Murdock, Caitlin (2010).Changing Places: Society, Culture, and Territory in the Saxon-Bohemian Borderlands, 1870-1946. University of Michigan Press. p. 103.:"By mid-December, the borderlands were firmly under Czechoslovak control. A Czechoslovak state with the historic borders of the Bohemian crown was a fait accomplit"
^Preclík, Vratislav (2019).Masaryk a legie (in Czech). Paris Karviná in association with the Masaryk Democratic Movement, Prague. pp. 111–112,124–125, 128, 129, 132,140–148,184–209.ISBN978-80-87173-47-3.
^Megargee, Geoffrey P.; Overmans, Rüdiger; Vogt, Wolfgang (2022).The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume IV. Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. pp. 128, 362, 417, 565.ISBN978-0-253-06089-1.
^ab"Subcamps".KZ-Gedenkstätte Flossenbürg. Retrieved5 November 2023.
^Wołek, Karol (2020). "The liberation of the German concentration camp in Holýšov, Czech Republic, by the Polish Armed Forces".The Warsaw Institute Review (in Polish). Vol. 2, no. 13. pp. 117–118.ISSN2543-9839.
^Seznam železničních stanicArchived 27 September 2016 at theWayback Machine, List of railway stations, České dráhy (Czech railways) – search for "v Čechách" (17×), "na Moravě" (15×), "Český", "České", "Moravský", "Moravské", etc.
^abMetzig, Gregor M. (2010). "Sigismund I. und der Oberlausitzer Sechsstädtebund in den Hussitenkriegen (1419–1437)".Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung.59 (1): 5.ISSN0948-8294.
^abcdKnothe, Hermann (1879).Geschichte des Oberlausitzer Adels und seiner Güter (in German). Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel. pp. 546–547, 643.
^ab"20. století".Hrádek nad Nisou (in Czech). Retrieved5 November 2023.
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