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Bofedales (singularbofedal), known in some parts of Peru asoconales, are a type ofwetland found in theAndes. They feature in the land use and ecology of high Andean ecosystems. They form in flat areas around ponds or streams and may be permanent or seasonal, and they can be man made or natural. Bofedales are associated with organic material in the soil and their green colour often contrasts with that of the drier surrounding landscape.
They are found at elevations exceeding 3,800 metres (12,500 ft) above sea level. Bofedales absorb the limited amount of water derived from snow, glacier meltwater and rain showers, storing it in ground and slowly releasing it. Their vegetation is dominated by cushion plants. Numerous animals including birds, mammals and invertebrates occur in bofedales. They are used by humans, who have created new such wetlands through irrigation, but human activities can also be a threat to these ecosystems.
Bofedal is the singular term; the plural isBofedales.[1] TheQuechua languages have terms likeoqho,hoq’o,waylla andqochawiña, while theAymara language terms arejuqhu andjukhu; there are also spelling variants.[2]Vega refers towetlands, which frequently but not always are bofedales.[3] The term "bofedal"/"bofedales" is frequently used for other types of wetlands or Andean ecosystems that do not need the definition.[2]
Bofedales arewetlands featuringcushion plants[3] in the Andes betweenColombia andVenezuela in the north toPatagonia in the south.[4] The surrounding drier, yellow landscape contrasts notably with the green bofedales,[1][5] creating landscapes of great aesthetic value.[6] The tropicalAndes feature numerous vegetation zones, with thepáramo in the north having the highest humidity. To the south moisture decreases and the distinction between thewet season anddry season increases, yielding the transition from the páramo to thejalca vegetation and finally to thepuna grassland. The Puna contains bothxerophytic and wet sections.[1] Analogous ecosystems exist in the mountains ofEast Africa,Hawaii andNew Guinea.[7]
The landscape of a bofedal features ponds, lawns and hummocks.[8] Plants growing in bofedales form cushions,[9] meadows, shrubs or flat-growing forms.[10] The bofedales can reach sizes of more than 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi) or less than 1 hectare (2.5 acres).[8] In Chile, long and narrow bofedales form at the bottom of valleys.[5] They usually form on flat terrain, next to ponds, springs and streams,[1] but most of the water is underground.[11] The water originates asgroundwater or from rivers, lakes andglaciers and is only slowly released by the bofedales, which thus constitute important water stores[12] for thedry season,[13] allowing streams to continue flowing.[7] Almost all river systems in southern Peru have bofedales in their headwaters.[14]
The climate conditions are often extreme, featuring highinsolation and strong winds, lack of precipitation andoxygen due to the thin atmosphere at these elevations, low temperatures with dailyfrosts and a shortgrowing season.[15] Bofedales sometimes exist only seasonally, others are present year-round.[16] They featurepeat ororganic soils[1] that can store significant quantities of carbon,[17] equivalent to ten times that of normalSphagnum peat.[13] They retain and filter nutrients.[7] Sometimes the ground is so soft that animals can sink into it.[10] Where bofedales have been dated, such as in Chile, they began development during theHolocene afterdeglaciation and often only during the last few millennia (including theLittle Ice Age), when conditions became wetter.[18][19]
As of 2012[update], almost 549.36 square kilometres (212.11 sq mi) of Peru were covered by bofedales; this is about 0.4% of the country.[1]Remote sensing found that in 1992–1993 about 1.4% of theAltiplano, about 2,064 square kilometres (797 sq mi), were bofedales.[20] In Chile large swathes of the Altiplano in the regions ofArica y Parinacota andTarapacá are covered by bofedales. Relative to this region bofedales in the more aridAntofagasta Region are smaller and more isolated.[21] The southernmost bofedales of the Central Andes are found at the latitude of theNevado Tres Cruces National Park in Chile.[19] In Peru, most bofedales lie inglacial basins.[18]
The most important plant species in bofedales arecushion plants, including theJuncaceaeDistichia muscoides andOxychloe andina.[4] About 61 to 62 different plant species have been recorded in Central Andean bofedales.[11] They do not occur in every bofedal; species composition varies between regions and different parts of the same bofedal. The species composition may vary due to grazing pressure and seed dispersal by animals, water availability and temperature, the presence of nutrients and toxic elements, and different stages of theecological succession.[6][22][23] Many of these plant species areendemic.[7] Bofedales have a highbiological productivity,[6] the highest of all ecosystems in thePuna.[4]
The water of bofedales provides habitats toamphibians like frogs (Acancocha water frog,common marsupial frogs andPleurodema marmoratum) and toads (Rhinella spinulosa).[12] Numerousinvertebrates likeannelids,crustaceans,insects,planarians andsnails live in bofedales.[24]Birds living in bofedales includeAndean geese,Andean lapwings,Andean negritos,buff-winged cinclodes,crested ducks,Darwin's rheas,golden-spotted ground doves,grey-breasted seedsnipes andyellow-billed teals. The food resources of bofedales also drawmammals likeAndean deer,Andean foxes,guanacos, various species of mice,[a]pampas cats,pumas,white-tailed deer,vicuñas andvizcachas.[12]
Bofedales are an important economic resource.[25] At their elevations climatic conditions makeagriculture unfeasible, while the high quality of the forage in bofedales invitesanimal husbandry.[26] On theAltiplano, in drier areas they are the most important pasture.[6]Alpacas,cattle,horses,llamas andsheep are fed there.[27] Plants used in medicine or in spiritual activities are taken from bofedales.[28]
Bofedales can be artificial,[1] and many may have formed through the irrigation of pastures. Some bofedales are artificially created and sustained through irrigation to this day.[26] Many more are at least partially modified by human activity. TheAymara,Quechua andColla[29] peoples have maintainedtraditional knowledge about the bofedales including irrigation techniques, animal rotation and the use of fire to remove dry plants.[28] The human engineering of bofedales is poorly studied.[30]
The water supply of Chilean cities inAtacama Desert such asAntofagasta andCalama has been, in part, historically derived from rivers tapped near bofedales.[31] However studies show that in the early 1990s 62% of bofedales and bofedal-like vegas in northern Chile yielded water of questionable quality for human consumption.[32] Issues related to the water quality of bofedales include the occurrence offecal and non-fecalcoliform bacteria as well asflyeggs.[33][31] A limited number of bofedales that function as water sources have had their drainage improved by channels due to sanitary reasons.[31]
Also in Chile a few bofedales and their associatedaquifers have supplied water for the country's largecopper mining industry.[b]
The use of bofedales for pasture frequently results inovergrazing,[38] although it may not always be detrimental to bofedal function.[39] More localized threats to bofedales aremining and the extraction of peat, which can result in severe damage.[38] Other infrastructure projects threatening bofedales aredams, road projects,[40] and the diversion of their water sources.[41]Climate change is a further threat to these ecosystems[42] as decreased precipitation[43] andglacier retreat reduces the flow of water into bofedales, which is necessary to sustain them.[41] Whether the activities of local communities are a threat or a benefit to bofedales is unclear.[44]
Bofedales arebiodiversity hotspots,[25] and many of the animal species living in them arethreatened.[8] Bofedales are important ecosystems in the mountains, with high levels of species diversity andendemism, and their ability to retain water reduces erosion and maintains water resources.[13] Within theRamsar Convention, they are counted as unforested peatlands.[1] Some bofedales are included inprotected areas but as of 2014[update], none were the subject of a dedicated protected area. They are considered to be vulnerable ecosystems under Peruvianenvironmental law.[38] In Chile, some regions require special permissions to withdraw water from bofedales and their watersheds.[8]
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