An X-37 first flew during a drop test in 2006; its first orbital mission was launched in April 2010 on anAtlas V rocket, and returned to Earth in December 2010. Subsequent flights gradually extended the mission duration, reaching 780 days in orbit for the fifth mission, the first to launch on aFalcon 9 rocket. The sixth mission launched on an Atlas V on 17 May 2020 and concluded on 12 November 2022, reaching 908 days in orbit.[3] The seventh mission launched on 28 December 2023 on aFalcon Heavy rocket, entering ahighly ellipticalhigh Earth orbit, landing in March 2025 after 434 days in orbit.[4][5]
An artist's rendering of the X-37 spacecraft in 1999
In 1999, NASA selectedBoeing Integrated Defense Systems to design and develop an orbital vehicle, built by the California branch ofBoeing Phantom Works. Over four years, $192 million was spent on the project, with NASA contributing $109 million, theU.S. Air Force $16 million, and Boeing $67 million. In late 2002, a new $301 million contract was awarded to Boeing as part of NASA'sSpace Launch Initiative framework.[6]
The aerodynamic design of the X-37 was derived from the largerSpace Shuttle orbiter, hence the X-37 has a similar lift-to-drag ratio, and a lower cross range at higher altitudes andMach numbers compared to DARPA'sHypersonic Technology Vehicle.[7] An early requirement for the spacecraft called for a total missiondelta-v of 7,000 miles per hour (3.1 km/s) for orbital maneuvers.[8] An early goal for the program was for the X-37 to rendezvous with satellites and perform repairs.[9] The X-37 was originally designed to be carried into orbit in the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle, but underwent redesign for launch on aDelta IV or comparablerocket after it was determined that a shuttle flight would be uneconomical.[10]
The X-37A vehicle that was used as an atmospheric drop testglider had no propulsion system. Instead of an operational vehicle's payload bay doors, it had an enclosed and reinforced upperfuselage structure to allow it to be mated with amothership. In September 2004, DARPA announced that for its initial atmospheric drop tests the X-37A would be launched from theScaled Composites White Knight, a high-altitude research aircraft.[12]
On 21 June 2005, the X-37A completed a captive-carry flight underneath the White Knight fromMojave Spaceport inMojave, California.[13][14] Through the second half of 2005, the X-37A underwent structural upgrades, including the reinforcement of itsnose wheel supports. The X-37A's public debut for its first free flight, scheduled for 10 March 2006, was canceled due to an Arctic storm.[15] The next flight attempt, on 15 March 2006, was canceled due to high winds.[15]
On 24 March 2006, the X-37A flew again but a datalink failure prevented a free flight and the vehicle returned to the ground still attached to its White Knight carrier aircraft. On 7 April 2006, the X-37A made its first free glide flight. During landing, the vehicle overran the runway and sustained minor damage.[16] Following the vehicle's extended downtime for repairs, the program moved from Mojave to Air ForcePlant 42 inPalmdale, California, for the remainder of the flight test program. White Knight continued to be based at Mojave, though it was ferried to Plant 42 when test flights were scheduled. Five additional flights were thought to have been performed,[N 1] two of which resulted in X-37 releases with successful landings. These two free flights occurred on 18 August 2006 and 26 September 2006.[17]
On 17 November 2006, the U.S. Air Force announced that it would develop its own variant of NASA's X-37A. The Air Force version was designated the X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle (OTV). The OTV program was built on earlier industry and government efforts by DARPA, NASA, and the Air Force under the leadership of theAir Force Rapid Capabilities Office in partnership with NASA and theAir Force Research Laboratory. Boeing was the prime contractor for the OTV program.[8][18][19] The X-37B was designed to remain in orbit for up to 270 days at a time.[20] TheSecretary of the Air Force stated that the OTV program would focus on "risk reduction, experimentation, and operational concept development for reusable space vehicle technologies, in support of long-term developmental space objectives".[18]
The X-37B was originally scheduled for launch in the payload bay of the Space Shuttle, but after theSpace ShuttleColumbia disaster, it was transferred to aDelta II 7920. The X-37B was subsequently transferred to a shrouded configuration on theAtlas V rocket, due to concerns over the unshrouded spacecraft's aerodynamic properties during launch.[21] Following their missions, X-37B spacecraft primarily land on a runway atVandenberg Air Force Base, California, withEdwards Air Force Base as a secondary site.[22] In 2010, manufacturing work began on the second X-37B,[23] which conducted its maiden mission in March 2011.[24]
On 8 October 2014, NASA confirmed that X-37B vehicles would be housed atKennedy Space Center in Orbiter Processing Facilities (OPF) 1 and 2, hangars previously occupied by the Space Shuttle. Boeing had said the space planes would use OPF-1 in January 2014, and the Air Force had previously said it was considering consolidating X-37B operations, housed at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, nearer to their launch site at Cape Canaveral. NASA also stated that the program had completed tests to determine whether the X-37B, one-fourth the size of the Space Shuttle, could land on the former Shuttle runways.[25] NASA furthermore stated that renovations of the two hangars would be completed by the end of 2014; the main doors of OPF-1 were marked with the message "Home of the X-37B" by this point.[25]
Most of the activities of the X-37B project are secret. The official Air Force statement is that the project is "an experimental test program to demonstrate technologies for a reliable, reusable, uncrewed space test platform for the U.S. Air Force".[26] The primary objectives of the X-37B are twofold: reusable spacecraft technology and operating experiments, which can be returned to Earth.[26] The Air Force states that this includes testingavionics, flight systems, guidance and navigation, thermal protection, insulation, propulsion, and re-entry systems.[27]
In May 2010, Tom Burghardt speculated onSpace Daily that the X-37B could be used as aspy satellite or to deliver weapons from space.The Pentagon subsequently denied claims that the X-37B's test missions supported the development of space-based weapons.[28] In January 2012, allegations were made that the X-37B was being used to spy on China'sTiangong-1 space station module.[29] Former U.S. Air Force orbital analyst Brian Weeden later rejected this claim, emphasizing that the different orbits of the two spacecraft precluded any practical surveillance flybys.[30]
In October 2014,The Guardian reported the claims of security experts that the X-37B was being used "to test reconnaissance and spy sensors, particularly how they hold up against radiation and other hazards of orbit".[31] In November 2016, theInternational Business Times speculated that the U.S. government was testing a version of theEmDrive electromagnetic microwave thruster on the fourth flight of the X-37B.[32] In 2009, an EmDrive technology transfer contract with Boeing was undertaken via a State Department TAA and a UK export license, approved by theUK Ministry of Defence.[33][34] Boeing has since stated that it is no longer pursuing this area of research.[35] The U.S. Air Force has stated that the X-37B is testing aHall-effect thruster system forAerojet Rocketdyne.[36]
X-37B 2 sits on the Shuttle Landing Facility after the OTV-4 mission, with ground crew wearing protective suits.
Processing for the X-37 is carried out inside Bays 1 and 2 of theOrbiter Processing Facility (OPF) atKennedy Space Center in Florida, where the vehicle is loaded with its payload. The X-37 is then placed inside a fairing along with its stage adapter and transported to the launch site. Previous launch sites have includedSLC-41 andKennedy Space Center LC-39A.[38][39]
Landing is at one of three sites across the US: theShuttle Landing Facility at Kennedy Space Center,Vandenberg Space Force Base, orEdwards Air Force Base. To return to Kennedy Space Center, the X-37 is placed into a payload canister and loaded into aBoeing C-17 cargo plane. Once at Kennedy, the X-37 is unloaded and towed to the OPF, where it is prepared for its next flight. Technicians must wear protective suits[40] due to toxic hypergolic gases.[citation needed]
The X-37 Orbital Test Vehicle is a reusableroboticspaceplane. It is an approximately 120-percent-scale derivative of theBoeing X-40,[6][22] measuring over 29 feet (8.8 m) in length, and features two angled tail fins.[26][41] The X-37 launches atop anAtlas V 501[26][19] or a SpaceXFalcon 9[42] orFalcon Heavy[43] rocket. The spaceplane is designed to operate in a speed range of up toMach 25 on its reentry.[44][45]
The technologies demonstrated in the X-37 include an improvedthermal protection system, enhancedavionics, an autonomousguidance system and an advancedairframe.[10] The spaceplane's thermal protection system is built upon previous generations ofatmospheric reentry spacecraft,[46] incorporatingsilicaceramic tiles.[47] The X-37's avionics suite was used by Boeing to develop itsCST-100 crewed spacecraft.[48] The development of the X-37 was to "aid in the design and development of NASA'sOrbital Space Plane, designed to provide a crew rescue and crew transport capability to and from theInternational Space Station", according to a NASA fact sheet.[49]
The X-37 for NASA was to be powered by one Aerojet AR2-3 engine using storable propellants, providing thrust of 6,600 pounds-force (29.4 kN).[50] The human-rated AR2-3 engine had been used on the dual-powerNF-104A astronaut training vehicle and was given a new flight certification for use on the X-37 with hydrogen peroxide/JP-8 propellants.[51] This was reportedly changed to ahypergolic nitrogen-tetroxide/hydrazine propulsion system.[21][52] The X-37 lands automatically upon returning from orbit and is the third reusable spacecraft to have such a capability, after theSovietBuran shuttle[53] and the U.S. space shuttle, which had automatic landing capability by the mid-1990s, but never tested it.[54] The X-37 is the smallest and lightestorbital spaceplane flown to date; it has a launch mass of around 11,000 pounds (5,000 kg) and is approximately one quarter the size of theSpace Shuttle orbiter.[55]
On 13 April 2015, theSpace Foundation awarded the X-37 team with the2015 Space Achievement Award "for significantly advancing the state of the art for reusable spacecraft and on-orbit operations, with the design, development, test and orbital operation of the X-37B space flight vehicle over three missions totaling 1,367 days in space".[56]
X-37B 1 sits on the runway after landing at Vandenberg SFB at the end of its OTV-1 (USA-212) mission on 3 December 2010.
The first X-37B launched on its first mission–OTV-1/USA-212–on anAtlas V rocket fromCape Canaveral SLC-41 on 22 April 2010 at 23:52 UTC. The spacecraft was placed intolow Earth orbit for testing.[19] While the U.S. Air Force revealed few orbital details of the mission, a worldwide network ofamateur astronomers claimed to have identified the spacecraft in orbit. On 22 May 2010, the spacecraft was in an inclination of 39.99°, circling the Earth once every 90 minutes on an orbit 249 by 262 miles (401 by 422 km).[59][60] OTV-1 reputedly passed over the same given spot on Earth every four days, and operated at an altitude that is typical for military surveillance satellites.[61] Such an orbit is also common among civilian LEO satellites, and the spaceplane's altitude was the same as that of the ISS and most other crewed spacecraft.
The U.S. Air Force announced a 3–6 December landing on 30 November 2010.[62][63] As scheduled, the X-37B was de-orbited, reentered Earth's atmosphere, and landed successfully atVandenberg AFB on 3 December 2010, at 09:16 UTC,[64][65][66] conducting the first US autonomous orbital landing onto a runway. This was the first such landing since the SovietBuran shuttle in 1988. In all, OTV-1 spent 224 days and 9 hours in space.[19][64] OTV-1 suffered a tire blowout during landing and sustained minor damage to its underside.[23]
The second X-37B launched on its inaugural mission, designated OTV-2/USA-226,[67] aboard an Atlas V rocket from Cape Canaveral SLC-41 on 5 March 2011 at 22:46 UTC.[24] The mission was classified and described by the U.S. military as an effort to test new space technologies.[68] On 29 November 2011, the U.S. Air Force announced that it would extend USA-226 beyond the 270-day baseline duration.[69] In April 2012, GeneralWilliam L. Shelton of theAir Force Space Command declared the ongoing mission a "spectacular success".[70]
On 30 May 2012, the Air Force stated that the X-37B would land at Vandenberg AFB in June 2012.[71][72] The spacecraft landed autonomously on 16 June 2012, having spent 468 days and 14 hours in space.[24][73][74]
The third mission and second flight of the first X-37B, OTV-3 was originally scheduled to launch on 25 October 2012,[75] but was postponed because of an engine issue with the Atlas V launch vehicle.[76] It was successfully launched from Cape Canaveral SLC-41 on 11 December 2012 at 18:03 UTC.[55][77][78] Once in orbit, the spacecraft was designatedUSA-240.[79][80] Landing occurred at Vandenberg AFB on 17 October 2014 at 16:24 UTC, after a total time in orbit of 674 days and 22 hours.[77][81][82][83]
The fourth X-37B mission, OTV-4, was codenamed AFSPC-5 and designated as USA-261 in orbit. It was the second flight of the second X-37B vehicle.[21] The X-37B launched on an Atlas V rocket from Cape Canaveral SLC-41 on 20 May 2015 at 15:05 UTC.[84] Objectives included a test of Aerojet Rocketdyne's XR-5AHall-effect thruster in support of theAdvanced Extremely High Frequency communications satellite program,[36][85] and a NASA investigation on the performance of various materials in space[21][56][86] for at least 200 days.[21] The vehicle spent what was then a record-breaking 717 days and 20 hours in orbit before landing atKennedy Space Center'sShuttle Landing Facility on 7 May 2017 at 11:47 UTC.[87][88]
The fifth X-37B mission, designated USA-277 in orbit,[58] was launched fromKennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A on 7 September 2017 at 14:00 UTC, just before the arrival ofHurricane Irma.[89][90] The launch vehicle was aFalcon 9 rocket,[90] and a number of small satellites also shared the ride.[91] The spacecraft was inserted at a higher inclination orbit than previous missions, further expanding the X-37B's envelope.[91] During the flight, the spacecraftmodified its orbit using an on-board propulsion system.[92] While the complete payload for OTV-5 is classified, the Air Force announced that one experiment flying is the Advanced Structurally Embedded Thermal Spreader II (ASETS-II), which measures the performance of an oscillating heat pipe.[93] The mission was completed with the vehicle landing at the Shuttle Landing Facility on 27 October 2019 at 07:51 UTC.[40][94]
The sixth X-37B mission (OTV-6), U.S. Space Force 7 (formerly known as AFSPC 7), launched on an Atlas V 501 rocket from Cape Canaveral SLC-41 on 17 May 2020 at 13:14:00 UTC.[95] This mission is the first time the spaceplane has carried a service module, a ring attached to the rear of the vehicle for hosting multiple experiments.[96] The mission hosts more experiments than prior X-37B flights, including two NASA experiments. One is a sample plate evaluating the reaction of select materials to conditions in space. The second studies the effect of ambient space radiation on seeds. A third experiment designed by theNaval Research Laboratory (NRL) transforms solar power into radio frequency microwave energy, then studies transmitting that energy toEarth. The X-37B remains a Department of the Air Force asset, but the newly established U.S. Space Force is responsible for the launch, on-orbit operations, and landing.[97][98]
The X-37B released a small, 136 kg (300 lb) satellite namedFalconSat-8 (USA-300) around 28 May 2020.[99] Developed byUnited States Air Force Academy cadets in partnership with theAir Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), the small satellite carries five experimental payloads. The spacecraft will test a novel electromagnetic propulsion system, low-weight antenna technology and a commercial reaction wheel to provide attitude control in orbit. According to the United States Air Force Academy, FalconSat-8's experiments include:[100]
The fourth flight of second[101] X-37B and seventh overall X-37B mission was planned to be launched on SpaceX'sFalcon Heavy on 12 December 2023.[102] It was rescheduled for 28 December 2023,[103] when it was successfully launched at 8:07 pm EST (01:07:00 UTC on December 29).[104] The orbit is higher than any spaceplane, in ahighly ellipticalHEO orbit.[5]In October 2024, OTV-7 was due to undertakeaerobraking maneuvers to safely dispose of its service module.[105] The mission ended on with landing at Vandenberg Space Force Base on 7 March 2025 at 07:22 UTC.[106]
In 2011, Boeing announced plans for a scaled-up variant of the X-37B, referring to it as the X-37C. This spacecraft was planned to be between 165% and 180% of the size of the X-37B, allowing it to transport up to six astronauts inside a pressurized compartment housed in the cargo bay. TheAtlas V was this variant's proposed launch vehicle.[108] In this role, Boeing's X-37C could potentially compete with the corporation'sCST-100 Starliner commercial space capsule.[109] As of 2024[update], with NASA selecting Starliner andSpaceX Crew Dragon, there has been no further announcement to develop X-37C.[110][111][112][113]
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^"N. Wayne Hale Oral History". NASA. 28 May 2014.Archived from the original on 22 June 2023.There was always a concern, particularly as we got these longer and longer flights, there's some vestibular things that happen, some vision changes that happen with people, and we were concerned about them landing. We wanted to make sure we had a viable auto-land system, and the program manager gave us direction to test that out. For STS-53, we worked very, very hard to dot all the i's and cross all the t's so we could do an auto-land test. An auto-land test—you're using a real Orbiter with the live crew. They've got to, no kidding, be right on the mark, or it could be really bad. ...Jed [Jeremiah W.] Pearson, who was the associate administrator for human spaceflight, former Marine Corps general, as I recall, reviewed it and said, "We're not going to be flying any more of these long-duration flights. We don't need to do this. We're going to knock this off." Devastating. The team was all set to do this. We were all ready to do this, we were so excited about doing it, thought it would be a good capability.
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