| Blueberry | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Vaccinium caesariense | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Asterids |
| Order: | Ericales |
| Family: | Ericaceae |
| Genus: | Vaccinium |
| Section: | Vaccinium sect.Cyanococcus Rydb. |
| Species | |
See text | |
Blueberries are a widely distributed and widespread group ofperennialflowering plants with blue or purple berries. They are classified in thesectionCyanococcus with thegenusVaccinium.[1] Commercial blueberries—both wild (lowbush) and cultivated (highbush)—are all native to North America. The highbush varieties were introduced into Europe during the 1930s.[2]
Blueberries are usuallyprostrateshrubs that can vary in size from 10 centimeters (4 inches) to 4 meters (13 feet) in height. In the commercial production of blueberries, the species with small, pea-size berries growing on low-level bushes are known as "lowbush blueberries" (synonymous with "wild"), while the species with larger berries growing on taller, cultivated bushes are known as "highbush blueberries".Canada is the leading producer of lowbush blueberries, while the United States produces some 40% of the world's supply of highbush blueberries.
Many species of blueberries grow wild in North America, includingVaccinium myrtilloides,V. angustifolium andV. corymbosum, which grow on forest floors or nearswamps.[3]
Wild blueberries reproduce bycross pollination, with each seed producing a plant with a different genetic composition, causing within the same species differences in growth, productivity, color, leaf characteristics, disease resistance, flavor, and other fruit characteristics.[3] The mother plant develops underground stems calledrhizomes, allowing the plant to form a network of rhizomes creating a large patch (called aclone) which is genetically distinct.[3]Floral and leaf buds develop intermittently along the stems of the plant, with each floral bud giving rise to 5–6 flowers and the eventual fruit.[3] Wild blueberries prefer an acidic soil between 4.2 and 5.2 pH and only moderate amounts of moisture.[3] They have a hardy cold tolerance in their range in Canada and the northern United States.[3] Fruit productivity of lowbush blueberries varies by the degree of pollination, genetics of the clone, soil fertility, water availability, insect infestation, plant diseases, and local growing conditions.[3] Wild (lowbush) blueberries have an average mature weight of 0.3 grams (1⁄128 oz).[3]
Lowbush blueberries, sometimes called "wild blueberries", are generally not planted by farmers, but rather are managed on berry fields called "barrens".[4] Cultivated highbush blueberries prefer sandy orloam soils, having shallow root systems that benefit frommulch andfertilizer.[5] Theleaves of highbush blueberries can be eitherdeciduous orevergreen, ovate tolanceolate, and1–8 cm (1⁄2–3+1⁄4 in) long and0.5–3.5 cm (1⁄4–1+3⁄8 in) broad. Theflowers are bell-shaped, white, pale pink or red, sometimes tinged greenish.
The fruit is aberry5–16 mm (3⁄16–5⁄8 in) in diameter with a flared crown at the end; they are pale greenish at first, then reddish-purple, and finally uniformly blue when ripe.[5] They are covered in a protective coating of powderyepicuticular wax, colloquially known as the "bloom".[3] They generally have a sweet taste when mature, with variable acidity.[3][5] Blueberry bushes typically bear fruit in the middle of the growing season: fruiting times are affected by local conditions, such as climate, altitude, andlatitude, so the time of harvest in the northern hemisphere can vary from May to August.[3][5]
Commercially offered blueberries are usually from species that naturally occur only in eastern and north-centralNorth America. Other sections in the genus are native to other parts of the world, including thePacific Northwest and the southern United States,[6] South America, Europe and Asia. Other wild shrubs in many of these regions produce similar-looking edible berries, such ashuckleberries andwhortleberries (North America) and bilberries (Europe). These species are sometimes called "blueberries" and are sold as blueberry jam or other products.
The names of blueberries in languages other than English often translate as "blueberry", e.g.Scotsblaeberry and Norwegianblåbær.Blaeberry,blåbær and Frenchmyrtilles usually refer to the European nativeV. myrtillus (bilberry), whilebleuets refers to the North American blueberry.
Cyanococcus blueberries can be distinguished from the nearly identical-looking bilberries by their flesh color when cut in half. Ripe blueberries have light green flesh, while bilberries, whortleberries, and huckleberries are red or purple throughout.
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Note: habitat and range summaries are from theFlora of New Brunswick, published in 1986 by Harold R. Hinds, andPlants of the Pacific Northwest coast, published in 1994 by Pojar and MacKinnon.
Some other blue-fruited species ofVaccinium:
The lowbush varieties areV. angustifolium,V. boreale,V. mytilloides,V. pallidum, andV. angustifolium ×V. corymbosum. They are still grown similarly to pre-Columbian semi-wild cultivation, i.e.slash and burn. The highbush varieties are darrowii and corymbosum. Rabbiteye (V. ashei/V. virgatum) differ from both high- and lowbush.[8]
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Vaccinium has a mostlycircumpolar distribution, with species mainly present in North America, Europe, and Asia.[1] Many commercially available species with Englishcommon names including "blueberry" are from North America,[8] particularlyAtlantic Canada and thenortheastern United States for wild (lowbush) blueberries, and several US states andBritish Columbia for cultivated (highbush) blueberries.[4][9]
North American native species of blueberries are grown commercially in the Southern Hemisphere in Australia, New Zealand and South American nations.Vaccinium meridionale (the Andean blueberry) is wild-harvested and commonly available locally.[10] Several other wildshrubs of the genusVaccinium also produce commonly eaten blue berries, such as the predominantly EuropeanV. myrtillus and otherbilberries, which in many languages have a name that translates to "blueberry" in English.
Blueberries may be cultivated, or they may be picked from semiwild or wild bushes. In North America, the most common cultivated species isV. corymbosum, thenorthern highbush blueberry. Hybrids of this with otherVaccinium species adapted to southern U.S. climates are known collectively as southern highbush blueberries.[11] Highbush blueberries were first cultivated inNew Jersey around the beginning of the 20th century.[9][8]
So-called "wild" (lowbush) blueberries, smaller than cultivated highbush ones, have intense color.V. angustifolium (lowbush blueberry) is found from theAtlantic provinces westward toQuebec and southward toMichigan andWest Virginia. In some areas, it produces natural "blueberry barrens", where it is the dominant species covering large areas. SeveralFirst Nations communities inOntario are involved in harvesting wild blueberries.
"Wild" has been adopted as a marketing term for harvests of managed native stands of lowbush blueberries. The bushes are not planted orselectively bred, but they are pruned or burned over every two years, and pests are "managed".[12]
Numerous highbushcultivars of blueberries are available, with diversity among them, each having individual qualities. A blueberry breeding program has been established by theUSDA-ARS breeding program atBeltsville, Maryland, andChatsworth, New Jersey. This program began whenFrederick Vernon Coville of the USDA-ARS collaborated withElizabeth Coleman White ofNew Jersey.[13] In the early part of the 20th century, White offered pineland residents cash for wild blueberry plants with unusually large fruit.[14] After 1910 Coville began to work on blueberry, and was the first to discover the importance ofsoil acidity (blueberries need highly acidic soil), that blueberries do not self-pollinate, and the effects of cold on blueberries and other plants.[15] In 1911, he began a program of research in conjunction with White, daughter of the owner of the extensivecranberry bogs at Whitesbog in theNew Jersey Pine Barrens. His work doubled the size of some strains' fruit, and by 1916, he had succeeded in cultivating blueberries, making them a valuable crop in the Northeastern United States.[14][16] For this work he received the George Roberts White Medal of Honor from theMassachusetts Horticultural Society.
Therabbiteye blueberry (Vaccinium virgatum syn.V. ashei) is a southern type of blueberry produced fromthe Carolinas to theGulf Coast states. Production of rabbiteye blueberries was a focus inTexas in the early 21st century.[17] Other important species in North America includeV. pallidum, the hillside or dryland blueberry. It is native to the eastern U.S., and common in theAppalachians and thePiedmont of the Southeast. Sparkleberry,V. arboreum, is a common wild species on sandy soils in the Southeast.
Successful blueberry cultivation requires attention tosoil pH (acidity) measurements in the acidic range.[18][19][20]
Blueberry bushes often require supplemental fertilization,[19] but over-fertilization with nitrogen can damage plant health, as evidenced by nitrogen burn visible on the leaves.[18][19]
Significant production of highbush blueberries occurs inBritish Columbia,Maryland,Western Oregon,Michigan,New Jersey,North Carolina, andWashington. The production of southern highbush varieties occurs in California, as varieties originating fromUniversity of Florida,Connecticut,New Hampshire,North Carolina State University andMaine have been introduced.Peru, Spain, and Mexico also have significant production, as of 2018 (see Production).[21]
In 2018,Oregon produced the most cultivated blueberries, recording 59 million kilograms (131 million pounds), an amount slightly exceeding the production byWashington.[22] In descending order of production volume for 2017, other major producers wereGeorgia,Michigan,New Jersey, California, andNorth Carolina.[23]
Hammonton, New Jersey, claims to be the "Blueberry Capital of the World",[24] with over 80% of New Jersey's cultivated blueberries coming from this town.[25] Every year the town hosts a large festival, which draws thousands of people to celebrate the fruit.[26]
Maine is known for its wild blueberries,[27] but the state's lowbush (wild) and highbush blueberries combined account for 10% of all blueberries grown in North America. Some 44,000 hectares (110,000 acres) are farmed, but only half of this acreage is harvested each year due to variations in pruning practices.[28] The wild blueberry is the official fruit of Maine.[29]
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Canadian production of wild and cultivated blueberries in 2015 was 166,000 tonnes valued at $262 million, the largest fruit crop produced nationally accounting for 29% of all fruit value.[30]
British Columbia was the largest Canadian producer of cultivated blueberries, yielding 70,000 tonnes in 2015,[30] the world's largest production of blueberries by region.[31]
Atlantic Canada contributes approximately half of the total North American wild/lowbush annual production withNew Brunswick having the largest in 2015, an amount expanding in 2016.[32]Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island andQuébec are also major producers.[33] Nova Scotia recognizes the wild blueberry as its official provincial berry,[34] with the town ofOxford, Nova Scotia known as the Wild Blueberry Capital of Canada.[35]
Québec is a major producer of wild blueberries, especially in the regions ofSaguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean (where a popular name for inhabitants of the regions isbleuets, or "blueberries") andCôte-Nord, which together provide 40% of Québec's total provincial production. This wild blueberry commerce benefits fromvertical integration of growing, processing, frozen storage, marketing, and transportation within relatively small regions of the province.[36] On average, 80% of Québec wild blueberries are harvested on farms (21 million kilograms (23,000 short tons)), the remaining 20% being harvested from public forests (5 million kilograms (5,500 short tons)).[36] Some 95% of the wild blueberry crop in Québec is frozen for export out of the province.[36]
Highbush blueberries were first introduced to Germany, Sweden, and theNetherlands in the 1930s, and have since been spread to numerous other countries of Europe.[2]V. corymbosum only began to be cultivated inRomania in a few years leading up to 2018 and rapidly increased in production and sales in that time (as with berries in general). As of 2018[update] it remains relatively unmolested by pests and diseases (seeDiseases below).[37]
In theSouthern Hemisphere, Brazil, Chile,Argentina,Peru,Uruguay, New Zealand, Australia, South Africa,[38] andZimbabwe grow blueberries commercially.[39]
In Brazil, blueberries are produced in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, São Paulo and Minas Gerais.[40]
Blueberries were first introduced to Australia in the 1950s, but the effort was unsuccessful. In the early 1970s, the Victorian Department of Agriculture imported seed from the U.S. and a selection trial was started. This work was continued into the mid-1970s when the Australian Blueberry Growers' Association was formed.[41]
In the 21st century, the industry grew inArgentina: "Argentine blueberry production has increased over the last three years with planted area up to 400 percent," according to a 2005 report by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.[42] "Argentine blueberry production has thrived in four different regions: the province of Entre Rios in northeastern Argentina, the province of Tucuman, the province of Buenos Aires and the southern Patagonian valleys", according to the report.[43] In theBureau of International Labor Affairsreport of 2014 onchild labor andforced labor, blueberries were listed among the goods produced in such working conditions in Argentina.[44]
As of 2018[update]V. corymbosum remains relatively unmolested by pests and diseases in Romania, withPhytophthora cinnamomi,Monilinia vaccinii-corymbosi,Botryosphaeria corticis,Godronia cassandrae,Phomopsis sp.,Botrytis cinerea,Naohidemyces vaccinii,Microsphaera penicillata var.vaccinii, and various viruses being the most common.[37]
DDT began to be used in blueberry soon after its discovery in 1939, and a few years later in the mid-1940s research began into its use in North America.[8]
Because "wild" is a marketing term generally used for all low-bush blueberries, it does not indicate that such blueberries are free from pesticides.[45]
Insecticidemodes of action must be varied to avoid encouraging resistance in the invasive pestDrosophila suzukii.[8]
Someinsecticides can be counterproductive, harmingnatural enemies of pests as well. For example, treatment forIllinoia pepperi can reduce populations of itspredators.Kaolin clay forRhagoletis mendax also reduced effectiveness ofDiachasma alloeum, itsparasitoid. The pest predatorHarpalus erraticus maintains greater abundance with selective insecticides rather than broad-spectrum MoAs.[8]
Blueberries are naturally relatively unmolested byarthropod pests. Nonetheless, there are 24 insect taxa known to bepest (organism)s in North America, the worst in New Jersey,Michigan,Maine, and Eastern Canada beingRhagoletis mendax. Secondary but still important areAcrobasis vaccinii,Grapholita packardi, andConotrachelusnenuphar. These four are the most common targets for the development of IPM practices. as of 2019[update], IPM research has also taken an interest inDrosophila suzukii and arthropods likeaphids (that vector diseases such as scorch virus andshoestring virus) andcicadellids (vectoring thephytoplasma that causes blueberry stunt). Managing pests down to the cosmetic level is necessary for this fruit because they are a premium product.[8]
Changes in locale and environment – to new geographies, and intogreenhouses – have required new pest management regimes, including innovative IPM. Conversely, importing foreign potential enemies into North America may yield good results:Operophtera brumata is a pest of blueberries andbirches which is successfully parasitized byCyzenis albicans despite the lack of historical, natural contact between the two. The same results were obtained withScirtothrips citri andBeauveria bassiana. Results are available forChoristoneura rosaceana and overwhelming numbers ofTrichogramma minutum, andCyclocephala longula overwhelmed bySteinernema scarabaei. This has also been attempted with flowerthrips and potential predators but with inconclusive results.[8]
Rhagoletis mendax is aquarantine pest inphytosanitary regimes of some countries around the world.[8]
Insect resistance was not a priority inbreeding programs until about the year 2000 and is still not a high priority. However, it may become more common as it becomes easier, especially usingmarker-assisted breeding.V. ashei is naturally moreresistant thanV. corymbosum toScaphytopius magdalensis.V. ashei is less resistant thanV. darrowii toProdiplosis vaccinia. There is variation between cultivars ofV. ashei in resistance toOberea myops. There is variation in resistance among cultivars ofV. corymbosum toAcrobasis vaccinii andPopillia japonica. WildV. spp. have greater resistance than highbush cultivars toI. pepperi. There is significant variation between highbush cultivars in the abundance of variousTephritidae, thrips, andHomalodisca vitripennis.[8]
| Country | Production (tonnes) |
|---|---|
 United States | 351,130 |
 Peru | 227,971 |
 Canada | 146,551 |
 Chile | 122,795 |
 Mexico | 66,482 |
 Spain | 61,230 |
| World | 1,113,261 |
| Source:FAOSTAT of the United Nations[46] | |
In 2021, world production of blueberries (lowbush and highbush combined) was 1.1 milliontonnes, led by the United States with 32% of global production,Peru with 20%, andCanada with 13%.[46]
In 2019, Canada was the largest producer of wild blueberries, mainly inQuebec and theAtlantic provinces,[47] but Canadian production of wild blueberries decreased since 2017 by transitioning to the more profitable cultivated highbush blueberries.[48]British Columbia produced 93% of the Canadian highbush blueberry crop in 2019.[47]
Canada No. 1 blueberries are all similar in size, shape, weight, and color—the total product can be no more than ten percent off-color and three percent otherwise defective.[49]
 A dish of blueberries | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy | 240 kJ (57 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
14.49 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sugars | 9.96 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dietary fiber | 2.4 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.33 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.74 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Water | 84 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| †Percentages estimated usingUS recommendations for adults,[50] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[51] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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First Nations peoples of Canada consumed wild blueberries for millennia.[4]
Blueberries are sold fresh or are processed asindividually quick frozen fruit,purée, juice, or dried or infused berries. These may then be used in a variety of consumer goods, such asjellies,jams,pies,muffins, snack foods, pancakes, or as an additive tobreakfast cereals.
Blueberry jam is made from blueberries, sugar, water, and fruitpectin.Blueberry sauce is a sweet sauce prepared using blueberries as a primary ingredient.
Blueberry wine is made from the flesh and skin of the berries, which is fermented and then matured; usually, the lowbush variety is used.
Blueberries consist of 14%carbohydrates, 0.7%protein, 0.3% fat, and 84% water. They contain only negligible amounts ofmicronutrients, with moderate levels (relative to respectiveDaily Values) (DV) of the essentialdietary mineralmanganese,vitamin C,vitamin K anddietary fiber. Generally, the nutrient contents of blueberries are a low percentage of the DV. A 100-gram serving provides a relatively low amount offood energy – 240 kilojoules (57 kcal) – with aglycemic load of 6.
Blueberries containanthocyanins, otherpolyphenols and variousphytochemicals under preliminary research for their potential biological effects.[52] Most polyphenol studies have been conducted using the highbush cultivar of blueberries (V. corymbosum), while content of polyphenols and anthocyanins in lowbush (wild) blueberries (V. angustifolium) exceeds values found in highbush cultivars.[53]
![Core structure common to all anthocyanins, some of which produce the blue pigments in blueberries.[52]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAnthocyanidine.svg)
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