Theblack kite (Milvus migrans) is a medium-sizedbird of prey in the familyAccipitridae, which also includes many otherdiurnal raptors. It is thought to be the world's most abundant species of Accipitridae, although some populations have experienced dramatic declines or fluctuations.[2] Current global population estimates run up to 6.7 million individuals.[1]
Unlike others of the group, black kites are opportunistic hunters and are more likely to scavenge. They spend much time soaring and gliding inthermals in search of food. Their angled wing and distinctive forked tail make them easy to identify. They are alsovociferous with a shrill whinnying call.
The blackkite is widely distributed through thetemperate and tropical parts ofEurasia and parts ofAustralasia andOceania, with the temperate region populations tending to be migratory. Several subspecies are recognized and formerly had their own English names. The European populations are small, but the South Asian population is very large.
The black kite was described by the French polymathGeorges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in hisHistoire Naturelle des Oiseaux in 1770.[3] The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved byFrançois-Nicolas Martinet in thePlanches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle which was produced under the supervision ofEdme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text.[4] Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalistPieter Boddaert coined thebinomial nameFalco migrans in his catalogue of thePlanches Enluminées.[5] Thetype locality is France.[6] The currentgenusMilvus was erected by the French naturalistBernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799.[7]Milvus is the Latin word for ared kite; the specificmigrans means "migrating" from the Latinmigrare "to migrate".[8]
Thered kite has been known tohybridize with the black kite (in captivity where both species were kept together, and in the wild on theCape Verde Islands).[9]
Recent DNA studies suggest that the yellow-billed African racesparasitus andaegyptius differ significantly from black kites in the Eurasianclade, and should be considered a separateallopatric species:yellow-billed kite,M. aegyptius.[10] They occur throughoutAfrica except for theCongo Basin and theSahara Desert. There have been some suggestions that the black-eared kite (M. m. lineatus) should be elevated to full species status asM. lineatus, but this is not well supported.[11]
M. m. migrans –(Boddaert, 1783):European black kite
Breeds Central, Southern and Eastern Europe, as well as theMaghreb region of Northwest Africa, to theTien Shan and south to northwesternPakistan. Winters inSub-Saharan Africa. The head is whitish.
M. m. lineatus –(J. E. Gray, 1831):black-eared kite
Siberia toAmurland south aroundHimalaya to northern India, northernIndochina and southern China; Japan. Northern inland birds migrate to the easternPersian Gulf coast and South Asia in winter. This has a larger palecarpal patch.
M. m. govinda –Sykes, 1832:small Indian kite (formerlypariah kite)
EasternPakistan east through tropicalIndia andSri Lanka to Indochina and theMalay Peninsula. Resident. A dark brown kite found throughout the subcontinent. Can be seen circling and soaring in urban areas. Easily distinguished by the shallow forked tail. The namepariah originates from the Indian caste system and usage of this name is deprecated.[13][14]
Taiwan andHainan; resident. Similar tolineatus but smaller, considered intermediate betweenlineatus andgovinda.[15] Recent genetic studies suggest that following the decline of localformosanus populations in Taiwan during the 20th century, the extant breeding populations in Taiwan now consist of intergrades betweenformosanus andlineatus.[16][17]
Black kites can be distinguished fromred kites by the slightly smaller size, less forked tail (visible in flight), and generally darkplumage without any rufous. The sexes are alike though the male is a little smaller and less aggressive (this is the case in most birds of prey). They weigh on average 735 grams (25.9 oz).[18] The upper plumage is brown but the head and neck tend to be paler. The patch behind the eye appears darker. The outer flight feathers are black and the feathers have dark cross bars and are mottled at the base. The lower parts of the body are pale brown, becoming lighter towards the chin. The body feathers have dark shafts giving it a streaked appearance. Thecere andgape are yellow, but the bill is black (unlike that of theyellow-billed kite). The legs are yellow and the claws are black. They have a distinctive shrill whistle followed by a rapid whinnying call. Males and females have the same plumage but females are longer than males and have a little larger wingspan. Their wingspan is around 150 cm (5 ft).[19]
Black Kite (Milvus migrans)- Juvenile inNepalBlack Kite (Milvus migrans) taking off inBaruipur, West Bengal, India.
The species is found in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. The temperate populations of this kite tend to be migratory while the tropical ones are resident.European and centralAsian birds (subspeciesM. m. migrans andblack-eared kiteM. m. lineatus, respectively) aremigratory, moving to the tropics in winter, but races in warmer regions such as theIndianM. m. govinda (small Indian/pariah kite), or the AustralasianM. m. affinis (fork-tailed kite), are resident. In some areas such as in theUnited Kingdom, the black kite occurs only as a wanderer on migration. These birds are usually of the nominate race, but in November 2006 a juvenile of the easternlineatus, not previously recorded in western Europe, was found inLincolnshire.[20]
In India, the population ofM. m. govinda is particularly large especially in areas of high human population. Here the birds avoid heavily forested regions. A survey in 1967 in the 150 square kilometres (58 sq mi) of the city of New Delhi produced an estimate of about 2200 pairs or roughly 15 per square kilometre.[19][24] Another survey in 2013 estimated 150 pairs for every 10 square kilometres (3.9 sq mi).[25]
Vagrants from Australia occasionally reach New Zealand, however, only one individual has persisted there (currently ~21 years old).[26]
Black Kite with prey at Bagmati River, Chovar, Nepal.
Black kites are most often seen gliding and soaring on thermals as they search for food. Their flight isbuoyant and the bird glides effortlessly, changing directions easily. They will swoop down with their legs lowered to snatch small live prey,fish, household refuse andcarrion, for which behaviour they are known in Britishmilitary slang as theshite-hawk. They are opportunist hunters and have been known to takebirds,bats,[27] androdents.[28] They are attracted to smoke and fires, where they seek escaping prey.[29] Kites are also known to spread wildfires in northern Australia by picking up and dropping burning twigs so as to flush prey,[30][31] leading to them being known in some circles as "firehawks".[32]
The Indian populations are well adapted to living in cities and are found in densely populated areas. Large numbers may be seen soaring inthermals over cities. In some places, they will readily swoop and snatch food held by humans. The meat is thrown into the air and the kites dive-bomb for the meat. Humans who are in the vicinity may suffer serious injury due to the sharp talons of the kites. The reinforcement between human proximity and being fed have decreased the kite's fear of humans.[33] Black kites in Spain prey on nestling waterfowl especially during summer to feed their young. Predation of nests of other pairs of black kites has also been noted.[34] Kites have also been seen to tear and carry away the nests ofbaya weavers in an attempt to obtain eggs or chicks.[35]
In winter, kites form large communal roosts. Flocks may fly about before settling at the roost.[36] When migrating, the black kite has a greater propensity to form large flocks than other migratory raptors, particularly prior to making a crossing over water.[37] In India, the subspeciesgovinda shows large seasonal fluctuations with the highest numbers seen from July to October, after the monsoons, and it has been suggested that they make local movements in response to high rainfall.[38]
The breeding season of the black kite in India begins in winter (mainly January and February[39]), the young birds fledging before themonsoons. The nest is a rough platform of twigs and sticks placed in a tree. Nest sites may be reused in subsequent years. European birds breed in summer. Birds in the Italian Alps tend to build their nest close to water in steep cliffs or tall trees.[40] Nest orientation may be related to wind and rainfall.[41] The nests may sometimes be decorated with bright materials such as white plastic and a study in Spain suggests that they may have a role in signalling to keep away other kites.[42]
After pairing, the male frequently copulates with the female. Unguarded females may be approached by other males, and extra pair copulations are frequent. Males returning from a foraging trip will frequently copulate on return, as this increases the chances of his sperm fertilizing the eggs rather than a different male.[43] Both the male and female take part in nest building, incubation and care of chicks.
Eggs
The typical clutch size is 2 or sometimes 3 eggs.[36][44] The incubation period varies from 30 to 34 days. Chicks of the Indian population stay at the nest for nearly two months.[39] Chicks hatched later in European populations appear to fledge faster. The care of young by the parents also rapidly decreased with the need for adults to migrate.[45][46] Siblings show aggression to each other and often the weaker chick may be killed, but parent birds were found to preferentially feed the smaller chicks in experimentally altered nests.[47]
Newly hatched young have down (prepennae) which are sepia on the back and black around the eye and buff on the head, neck and underparts. This is replaced by brownish-gray second down (preplumulae). After 9–12 days, the second down appears on the whole body except the top of the head. Body feathers begin to appear after 18 to 22 days. The feathers on the head become noticeable from the 24th to 29th day. The nestlings initially feed on food fallen at the bottom of the nest and begin to tear flesh after 33–39 days. They are able to stand on their legs after 17–19 days and begin flapping their wings after 27–31 days. After 50 days, they begin to move to branches next to the nest.[48][49] Birds are able to breed after their second year.[39] Parent birds guard their nest and will dive aggressively at intruders. Humans who intrude the nest appear to be recognized by birds and singled out for dive attacks.[50]
Black-eared kites in Japan were found to accumulate nearly 70% of mercury accumulated from polluted food in the feathers, thus excreting it in the moult process.[51] Black kites often perch on electric wires and are frequent victims of electrocution.[52][53] Their habit of swooping to pick up deadrodents or otherroadkill leads to collisions with vehicles.[54] Instances of mass poisoning as a result of feeding on poisoned voles in agricultural fields have been noted.[55] They are also a major nuisance at someairports, where their size makes them a significantbirdstrike hazard.[56]
As a large raptorial bird, the black kite has few natural predators. However, they do have a single serious predator: theEurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo). The eagle-owl freely picks off kites of any age and eagle-owls were noted to precipitously decrease kite breeding success when nesting within kilometres of the kites in theItalian Alps.[57] Like most bird species, they have parasites; several species of endoparasitictrematodes are known[58] and someDigenea species that are transmitted via fishes.[59][60][61]
Birds with abnormal development of a secondary upper mandible have been recorded ingovinda[62] andlineatus subspecies.[63]
^Andreyenkova, Natalya G.; Hong, Shiao-Yu; Lin, Hui-Shan; Iwami, Yasuko; Kirillin, Ruslan A.; Literák, Ivan; Zhimulev, Igor F.; Karyakin, Igor V. (2024-10-14). "Genetic relationships of populations of the Black Kite Milvus migrans (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae) in the east of its range in Asia and Australia".Zootaxa.5523 (1):83–99.doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5523.1.5.ISSN1175-5334.PMID39645951.
^Badley, John; Hyde, Philip (2006). "The Black-eared kite in Lincolnshire - a new British bird".Birding World.19 (11):465–470.
^Reich, Nathan; Sorenson, Amanda (2011)."Milvus migrans black kite".Animal Diversity. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved21 October 2021.
^Mikula, Peter; Morelli, Federico; Lučan, Radek K.; Jones, Darryl N.; Tryjanowski, Piotr (2016). "Bats as prey of diurnal birds: A global perspective".Mammal Review.46 (3):160–174.Bibcode:2016MamRv..46..160M.doi:10.1111/mam.12060.
^abAli, S.; Ripley, S.D. (1978).Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 226–230.ISBN978-0-19-562063-4.
^abcDesai, J.H.; Malhotra, A.K. (1979). "Breeding biology of the Pariah KiteMilvus migrans at Delhi Zoological Park".Ibis.121 (3):320–325.doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1979.tb06849.x.
^Sergio, Fabrizio; Pedrini, Paolo; Marchesi, Luigi (2003). "Adaptive selection of foraging and nesting habitat by black kites (Milvus migrans) and its implications for conservation: a multi-scale approach".Biological Conservation.112 (3):351–362.Bibcode:2003BCons.112..351S.doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00332-4.
^Viñuela, J.; Sunyer, C. (1992). "Nest orientation and hatching success of Black Kites Milvus migrans in Spain".Ibis.134 (4):340–345.doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1992.tb08013.x.
^Honda, K.; Nasu, T.; Tatsukawa, R. (1986). "Seasonal changes in mercury accumulation in the black-eared kite, Milvus migrans lineatus".Environmental Pollution Series A, Ecological and Biological.42 (4):325–334.doi:10.1016/0143-1471(86)90016-4.
^Karyakarte, P.P. (1970). "A new species of Echinochasmus (Trematoda: Echinostomatidae) from the kite,Milvus migrans (Boddaert), in India".Rivista di Parassitologia.31 (2):113–116.PMID5529542.
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