TheBlack Sox Scandal was agame-fixing scandal inMajor League Baseball (MLB) in which eight members of theChicago White Sox were accused of intentionally losing the1919 World Series against theCincinnati Reds in exchange for payment from agambling syndicate, possibly led byorganized crime figureArnold Rothstein. There is strong evidence both for and against Rothstein's involvement; however, there is no conclusive indication that the syndicate's actions were directed by or involved organized crime.[1]
In response to the scandal, theNational Baseball Commission was dissolved and JudgeKenesaw Mountain Landis was appointed to be the firstcommissioner of baseball, given absolute control over the sport to restore its integrity. Despiteacquittals in a public trial in 1921, Landispermanently banned all eight implicated players from professional baseball. TheBaseball Hall of Fame eventually defined the punishment as banishment from consideration for the Hall. Despite requests for reinstatement in the decades that followed (particularly in the case ofShoeless Joe Jackson), the ban remained in force for more than a century.[2] In 2025, CommissionerRob Manfred reinstated the Black Sox and several other now-deceased players.
In 1919,Charles Comiskey, the owner of theChicago White Sox and a prominentMajor League Baseball (MLB) player from 1882 to 1894, was widely resented by his players for his miserliness. As a player, Comiskey had taken part in thePlayers' League labor rebellion in 1890 and long had a reputation for underpaying players, even though the White Sox were one of the top teams in the league and had already won the1917 World Series.
Because of baseball'sreserve clause, any player who refused to accept a contract was prohibited from playing baseball on any other professional team under the auspices of "Organized Baseball." Players could only change teams with permission from their current team, and without aunion, the players had nobargaining power. Comiskey was probably no worse than most owners of the time; in fact, the White Sox had the largest team payroll in 1919. In the era of the reserve clause, gamblers could find players on many teams looking for extra cash—and did.[3][4]
The White Sox clubhouse was divided into two factions. One group resented the more straitlaced players (later called the "Clean Sox"), a group that includedsecond basemanEddie Collins, a graduate ofColumbia College of Columbia University;catcherRay Schalk; andpitchersRed Faber andDickie Kerr. By contemporary accounts, the two factions rarely spoke to each other on or off the field, and the only thing they had in common was a resentment of Comiskey.[5]
On September 18, 1919, White Sox playerChick Gandil met withJoe "Sport" Sullivan, aBostonbookmaker, at theHotel Buckminster nearFenway Park. The two men discussed plans to throw their upcoming series with theCincinnati Reds for $80,000 ($1,575,000 in September 2025).[6] Two days later, a meeting of White Sox players—including those committed to going ahead with the fix and those just ready to listen to the proposal—took place in Gandil's room at theAnsonia Hotel inNew York City.Buck Weaver, the team'sthird baseman, was the only player to attend the meetings who did not receive money; nevertheless, he was later banned along with the other seven Black Sox for knowing about the fix but not reporting it.
Although he hardly played in the series, utilityinfielderFred McMullin heard about the fix and threatened to report the others unless he was in on the payoff. As a small coincidence, McMullin was a former teammate of retired playerWilliam "Sleepy Bill" Burns, who had a minor role in the fix. Both had played for theLos Angeles Angels of thePacific Coast League (PCL),[7][8] and Burns had previously pitched for the White Sox in1909 and1910.[9] Staroutfielder"Shoeless Joe" Jackson was mentioned as a participant but did not attend the meetings, and his involvement remains disputed.
The scheme got an unexpected boost when the straitlaced Faber could notpitch due to getting sick with the flu. Years later, Schalk said the fix would not have happened if Faber had been available. According to Schalk, since Faber was the ace of the staff, he would almost certainly have gotten starts that went instead to two of the alleged conspirators, pitchersEddie "Knuckles" Cicotte andLefty Williams.[10]
On October 1, the day of Game One, there were rumors amongst gamblers that the World Series was fixed, and a sudden influx of money being bet on Cincinnati caused theodds against them to fall rapidly. These rumors also reached the press box where several correspondents, includingHugh Fullerton of theChicago Herald and Examiner and ex-player and managerChristy Mathewson, resolved to compare notes on any plays and players that they felt were questionable. However, most fans and observers were taking the series at face value. On October 2, thePhiladelphia Bulletin published a poem which would quickly prove to be ironic:
Still, it really doesn't matter,
After all, who wins the flag.
Good clean sport is what we're after,
And we aim to make our brag
To each near or distant nation
Whereon shines the sporting sun
That of all our games gymnastic
Base ball is the cleanest one!
After throwing astrike with his first pitch of the Series, Cicotte's second pitchstruck Cincinnati leadoffhitterMorrie Rath in the back, delivering a pre-arranged signal confirming the players' willingness to go through with the fix.[10] In the fourth inning, Cicotte made a lousy throw toSwede Risberg at second base. Sportswriters found the unsuccessfuldouble play to be suspicious.[11]
Williams lost three games, a Series record. Kerr, a rookie who was not part of the fix, won both of his starts. However, the gamblers were now reneging on their promised progress payments (to be paid after each game lost), claiming that all the money was let out on bets and was in the hands of the bookmakers. After Game Five, angry about the non-payment of promised money, the players involved in the fix attempted todoublecross the gamblers and won Games Six and Seven of the best-of-nine Series. Before Game Eight, threats of violence were made on the gamblers' behalf against players and family members.[12] Williams started Game Eight but gave up four straight one-out hits for three runs before managerKid Gleason relieved him. The White Sox lost Game Eight (and the series) on October 9, 1919.[13] Besides Weaver, the players involved in the scandal received $5,000 each (equivalent to $91,000 in 2024) or more, with Gandil taking $35,000 (equivalent to $635,000 in 2024).
Rumors of the fix dogged the White Sox throughout the1920 season as they battled theCleveland Indians for theAmerican Leaguepennant, and stories of corruption touched players on other clubs as well. At last, in September 1920, agrand jury was convened to investigate; Cicotte confessed to his participation in the fix to the grand jury on September 28.[14]
On the eve of their final season series, the White Sox were in a virtual tie for first place with the Indians. The Sox would need to win all three of their remaining games and then hope for Cleveland to stumble, as the Indians had more games left to play than the Sox. Despite the season being on the line, Comiskey suspended the seven White Sox still in the majors (Gandil had not returned to the team in 1920 and was playing semi-pro ball). He later said he had no choice but to suspend them, even though this action likely cost the Sox any chance of winning a second pennant. The Sox lost two of the three games in the final series against theSt. Louis Browns and finished in second place, two games behind the Indians, who went on to win the1920 World Series.
The grand jury issued its decision on October 22, 1920, and eight players and five gamblers were implicated. Theindictments included nine counts ofconspiracy to defraud.[15] The ten players not implicated in the scandal, as well as manager Kid Gleason, were each given $1,500 bonus checks (equivalent to $23,500 in 2024) by Comiskey in October 1920, the amount equaling the difference between the winners' and losers' share for participation in the 1919 Series.[16]
The trial commenced inChicago on June 27, 1921, but was delayed by JudgeHugo Friend because twodefendants, Ben Franklin and Carl Zork, claimed to be ill.[17]Right fielderShano Collins was named as the wronged party in the indictments, accusing his corrupt teammates of having cost him $1,784 as a result of the scandal.[18] Before the trial, key evidence went missing from theCook County courthouse, including the signedconfessions of Cicotte and Jackson, who subsequently recanted their confessions. Some years later, the missing confessions reappeared in the possession of Comiskey's lawyer.[19]
On July 1, theprosecution announced that Burns, who was under indictment for his part in the scandal, hadturned state's evidence and would testify.[20] Duringjury selection on July 11, several members of the current White Sox team, including Gleason, visited the courthouse, chatting and shaking hands with the indicted ex-players; at one point they even tickled Weaver, who was known to be quite ticklish.[21] Jury selection took several days, but on July 15 twelve jurors were finally empaneled in the case.[22]
Trial testimony began on July 18, when prosecutor Charles Gorman outlined the evidence he planned to present against the defendants. Here's a contemporaneous description fromThe New York Times:
The spectators added to the bleacher appearance of the courtroom, for most of them sweltered in shirtsleeves, and collars were few. Scores of small boys jammed their way into the seats, and as Mr. Gorman told of the alleged sell-out, they repeatedly looked at each other in awe, remarking under their breaths: 'What do you think of that?' or 'Well, I'll be darned.'[23]
Comiskey was then called to the stand, and became so agitated with questions being posed by thedefense that he rose from the witness chair and shook his fist at the defendants' counsel, Ben Short.[23]
The most explosive testimony began the following day, July 19, when Burns admitted that members of the White Sox had intentionally fixed the 1919 Series; Burns mentioned the involvement oforganized crime figureArnold Rothstein, among others, and testified that Cicotte had threatened to throw the ball clear out of the park if needed to lose a game.[24] After additional testimony and evidence, on July 28 the defense rested and the case went to the jury.[25] The jury deliberated for less than three hours before returning verdicts ofnot guilty on all charges for all of the accused players.[15]
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Long before the scandal broke, many of baseball's owners had nursed longstanding grievances with the way the game was then governed by theNational Baseball Commission.[26] The Black Sox scandal and the damage it caused to the game's reputation gave owners the resolve to make significant changes to the governance of the sport.[26] Their original plan was to appoint the widely respectedfederal judge and noted baseball fanKenesaw Mountain Landis to head a reformed three-member commission comprising men unconnected to baseball.[26] However, Landis made it clear to the owners that he would only accept an appointment as the game'ssole commissioner, and even then only on the condition that he be granted essentially unchecked power over the sport. Desperate to clean up the game's image, the owners agreed to his terms and vested him with virtually unlimited authority over everyone in the major and minor leagues.[26] It was controversial at the time for MLB to move toward a single commissioner with sole governance on behalf of the owners.
Upon taking office before the1921 season, one of Landis' first acts as commissioner was to use his new powers to place the eight implicated players on an "ineligible list", a decision that effectively left them suspended indefinitely from all of "organized" professional baseball (although not from semi-probarnstorming teams). Following their acquittals, Landis quickly quashed any prospect that he might reinstate the accused players. On August 3, 1921, the day after the acquittals, Landis issued his own verdict:
Regardless of the verdict of juries, no player who throws a ball game, no player who undertakes or promises to throw a ball game, no player who sits in confidence with a bunch of crooked ballplayers and gamblers, where the ways and means of throwing a game are discussed and does not promptly tell his club about it, will ever play professional baseball.[27]
Making use of a precedent that had previously seenBabe Borton,Harl Maggert,Gene Dale andBill Rumler banned from the PCL for fixing games,[28] Landis made it clear that all eight accused players would remain on the "ineligible list," banning them from organized baseball. Landis took the position that while the players had been acquitted in court, there was no dispute they had broken the rules of baseball, and none of them could ever be allowed back in the game if it were to regain the public's trust. Comiskey supported Landis by giving the seven who remained under contract to the White Sox their unconditional release.
Following the commissioner's statement, it was universally understood that all eight implicated players were to be banned from professional baseball for life. Landis, relying upon his years of experience as a federal judge and attorney, used this decision (the "case") as the founding precedent (of the reorganized majors) for the Commissioner of Baseball to be the highest and final authority over baseball as an organized, professional sport in the United States. He established the precedent that the league vested the commissioner withplenary power and the responsibility to determine the fitness or suitability of anyone, anything, or any circumstance, to be associated with professional baseball, past, present and future.
Landis banned eight members of the 1919 White Sox for their involvement in the fix:
Also banned wasJoe Gedeon, second baseman for the St. Louis Browns. A friend of Risberg, Gedeon learned about the fix from Risberg and placed bets on Cincinnati. He informed Comiskey of the fix after the Series to gain a reward. Instead, Landis banned him for life along with the eight White Sox.[32]
The extent of Jackson's part in the scheme remains controversial. He had a Series-leading .375batting average—including the Series' onlyhome run—threw out five baserunners and handled thirty chances in the outfield with no errors. In general, players perform worse in games their team loses, and Jackson batted worse in the five games that the White Sox lost, with a batting average of .286 in losing games. This was still an above-average batting average (theNational and American Leagues hit a combined .263 in the 1919 season).[33] Jackson hit .351 for the season, fourth-best in the major leagues (his .356 career batting average is the fourth-best in history, surpassed only byTy Cobb,Oscar Charleston andRogers Hornsby) – each anMLB batting average leader. Three of his sixRBIs came in the losses, including the aforementioned home run, and a double in Game Eight when the Reds had a significant lead and the series was all but over. Still, in that game, a longfoul ball was caught at the fence with runners on second and third, depriving Jackson of a chance to drive in the runners.
One play in particular has been subjected to scrutiny. In the fifth inning of Game Four, with a Cincinnati player on second, Jackson fielded a single hit to left field and threw home, which was cut off by Cicotte. Gandil later admitted to yelling at Cicotte to intercept the throw. The run scored, and the Sox lost 2–0.[34] Cicotte, whose guilt is undisputed, made two errors in that fifth inning alone.
Years later, all the implicated players said that Jackson was never present at their meetings with the gamblers. Williams, Jackson's roommate, later said they only mentioned Jackson in hopes of giving them more credibility with the gamblers.[10]
After being banned, Risberg and several other members of the Black Sox tried to organize a three-state barnstorming tour. However, they were forced to cancel those plans after Landis let it be known that anyone who played with or against them would also be banned from baseball for life. They then announced plans to play a regularexhibition game every Sunday in Chicago, but theChicago City Council threatened to cancel the license of any ballpark that hosted them.[10]
With seven of their best players permanently sidelined, the White Sox crashed into seventh place in 1921 and would not be a contender in a pennant race again until1936, five years after Comiskey's death. They would not win anotherAmerican League championship until1959 (a then-record forty-year gap) nor another World Series until2005, prompting some to comment about aCurse of the Black Sox.
Although many believe the Black Sox name to be related to the dark and corrupt nature of the conspiracy, the term "Black Sox" may already have existed before the fix. There is a story that the name "Black Sox" derived from Comiskey's refusal to pay for the players' uniforms to be laundered, instead insisting that the players themselves pay for the cleaning. As the story goes, the players refused, and subsequent games saw the White Sox play in progressively filthier uniforms as dirt, sweat and grime collected on the white, woolen uniforms until they took on a much darker shade. Comiskey then had the uniforms washed and deducted the laundry bill from the players' salaries.[35] On the other hand, Eliot Asinof in his bookEight Men Out makes no such connection, mentioning the filthy uniforms early on but referring to the term "Black Sox" only in connection with the scandal.
Asinof'sEight Men Out includes a dramatic, but entirely fictional, report of what happened before the Game Eight. Asinof admitted in 2003 that the story was made up ... Threats were, however, made.
