Blót (Old Norse andOld English) orgeblōt (Old English) are religious ceremonies inGermanic paganism that centred on the killing and offering of an animal to a particular being, typically followed by the communal cooking and eating of its meat. Old Norse sources present it as a central ritual inOld Nordic religion that was intimately connected with many wider aspects of life.Largeblót are often described as taking place in halls, organised by the rulers of the region who were expected to carry out the practice on behalf of the people.Blót were central to the legitimacy of rulers and Christian rulers refusing to hold them were at times replaced by more willing alternatives and driven out of the land. Smaller, householdblót were sometimes recorded as being led by women. Beyond strengthening legitimacy for the ruling elites, the performance ofblót was often in order to ensure the fertility of the land, a good harvest and peace, although they are also recorded as being performed for divination or to achieve desired results in legal matters.

After theestablishment of Christianity,blót were routinely made punishable offences, as seen in early Germanic legal codes, with the recipients of the worship and sacrifice often equated with demons. Despite this, some aspects of the practice were likely incorporated into local Christian culture and continued into the modern period. The conscious performing ofblót has also been revived in the modern period as part of the practice ofmodern heathens.

The verb form is seen inOld Norse:blóta ("to worship; to sacrifice"),Gothic:blotan ("to serve (God); to worship"; to honour (through sacrifice)"),Old English:blōtan ("to sacrifice") andOld High German:blōzan.^[2][3] TheProto-Germanic form of the verb can be reconstructed as the strong verb*blōtanan, or*blōtan meaning "to sacrifice".^[2][3]

The noun form is seen inOld English:blót andge-blót ("sacrifice"), andOld Norse:blót ("sacrifice; worship").^[3][4] A Proto-Germanic form of the noun can be similarly reconstructed as*blōtan.^[3] A similar and related form can be reconstructed as*blōtan fromOld High German:bluostar ("sacrifice") andGothic:blostreis, a component ofguþ-blostreis ("worshipper of God").^[3]Blót can also be used to mean "idol-worship" in general, an "idol" (often in the formblœti) or metaphorically to mean "cursing" or "swearing" in Christian times due to the negative view of heathenry.^{[5][6][note 1]}

The shared Germanic root has been proposed to be related to*blōtan ("to blow; to bloom; to blossom"), which is further connected to*blōđan ("blood").^[3] A connection has been further proposed toLatin:flamen ("priest"), although it has been argued that the validity of this is dependent on the exact root offlamen which cannot be determined with certainty.^{[3][7][note 2]}

In the context of "to worship" or "to worship with sacrifice", theOld Norse verbblóta is typically used with that being worshipped in theaccusative case, and rarely with it in thedative case. The dative case is more typically used for the object being sacrificed. The verb is often followed by the aim of theblót, for exampletil friðar, sigrs, langlífis, árs, byrjar ("for peace, victory, long life, good season, fair wind").^[5]

Old Norse:Blót is found in many compound words relating to worship or sacrifice. These include adjectives such asblót-auðigr ("rich in sacrifices") and terms for individuals also include it is a prefix such asblót-biskup,blót-kennimaðr, orblót-goði ("heathen priest"),blót-hofðingi ("heathen chief"). Other compounds include recipients of worship such asblót-guð ("heathen god") andblót-kálfr ("calf worshipped with sacrifices"). Items with religious function can also include it as a prefix such asblót-bolli ("sacrificial bowl") andblót-klæði ("garments worn at sacrifices"), and it can refer to religious concepts such asblót-dómr orblót-skapr ("idolatry"), andblótnaðr which is used to mean both "sacrificing to heathen gods" and "idolatry".^[8]

It has been proposed that during theMigration Period, religious organisation drastically changed, with rulers gaining enough power to centralise sacrifices and ceremonies to their own homes rather than in outdoor spaces such as bogs and lakes, as had been done before. These indoor cultic buildings are referred to in Old Norse sources variously ashof,hǫrgar,goðahús,blóthús.^[9]

Sources do still recordViking Ageblót taking place a diverse range of sites, withgroves, hofs and waterfalls being described as the recipients ofblót, along with beings such asgods,elves and heathenvættir.^[5] Some nouns for places includeblót as a prefix, suggesting them as sites where these ceremonies took place, such asblót-haugr ("sacrificial mound or cairn") andblót-hof ("heathen house of worship").^[5]Kjalnesinga saga describes how there was a site near a largehof calledBlótkelda ("sacrificial fen/bog/well/spring" or "fen near the heathen temple") into which sacrifices were thrown during sacrifical feasts. This idea is also reflected in Icelandic placenames such asBlótkelda atMöðrudalur andGoðakelda ("fen/spring of the gods") atMývatn.^[10]

The written sources and the archaeological record indicate that in Old Norse religious practice, the sacrifice ofanimals, particularlypigs andhorses, played a significant part in theblót. Closer in conception to a gift, it usually involved killing animals, and sometimes humans, in ritual fashion.^[11]

Adam of Bremen's account of the temple atUppsala notes that only the heads were offered.^[12] This practice is possibly supported by the archaeological record. At the temple-hall ofHofstaðir in northern Iceland, oxen were decapitated in seasonal rituals for many years and the heads displayed at the hall.Osteological analysis of the bones shows that the animals were killed with blows to the neck by axe or sword. This method was perhaps intended to produce the spectacle of a shower of arterial blood.^[11] Similar observations have been made at other sites such as theViking Age birch stump found underneath the church atFrösön ("Freyr's island") inJämtland, and a site of a possible cult-house in Borg inÖstergötland. Both of these sites had a significant enrichment of skulls relative to other bones. It has been proposed that there was a widespread practice to offer the heads to the gods, whilst cooking the meat for the feast that followed. It has also been suggested that the number of skulls that a hall displayed would act as a status signal, indicating the size of the feast that could be hosted within.^[13]

The written sources speak of sacrifices made of prisoners of war; Roman descriptions of Germanic tribes sacrificing their defeated enemies to Mars or Mercury have a similarity with customs related to the cult of Óðinn in Old Norse religion. The Icelandic skáld Helgi Trausti mentions his killing an enemy as a sacrifice to Óðinn;Egils saga einhenda ok Ásmundar berserkjabana andOrkneyinga saga describe the sacrificing of captive enemies to Óðinn. In depositions of remains found near Uppland, most of the human bodies are of young males with healed bone trauma, a possible congruence with the sacrificed captives of war mentioned in the written corpus. In almost all instances, human sacrifices occurring in the context of the Old Norse texts are related to Óðinn.^[14] Criminals and slaves are the humans being sacrificed in the majority of cases which has been compared to modernexecutions.^[15] Scholars doubt the reliability of some claims of human sacrifice. In the case ofAdam of Bremen's account of the sacrifices at Uppsala, for example, the author likely exaggerated about the sacrifices of humans in order to demoniseGermanic religion. Similarly, the accuracy of the account of human sacrifice in Kjalnesinga saga has been doubted by some scholars.^[16]

InHákonar saga góða,Snorri Sturluson describeshlautteinar ("sacrificial twigs") being used like sprinklers to spread blood over thestallar ("altars" or "platforms"), the walls of the hof (both inside and outside) and the people who were present there. It is possible that this description was influenced by the ecclesiastical ceremonies of the medieval church in which holy water was sprinkled over the congregation, or the account in theOld Testament, in whichMoses sprinkles blood on his people. Snorri in his description explicitly notes the similarity betweenhlautteinar andstǫklar ("aspergillum").^[18] Building on this, it has been proposed that the use of terms such ashlaut,hlautolli andhlautteinn to mean "sacrificial blood", "sacrificial twig" and "sacrificial bowl" respectively does not accurately reflect their use in pre-Christian times. This is partly based on the absence of the terms fromSkaldic poetry andEddic poems.^[18]Olof Sundqvist supports the idea thathlaut formerly had the meaning of "lot" in the context ofdivination.^[19]

WhileKlaus Düwel has taken this argument further, arguing that the sprinkling of sacrificial blood had no influence from heathen Germanic culture and was derived wholly from other sources such as the Old Testament, this has been challenged.^[18] The wordstallar (corresponding to one of the places sprinkled with blood in Snorri's account), likely did have a meaning related to sacrifice in pre-Christian Scandinavian contexts. The phrasevéstallr ("sacred stand") is found in Skaldic poetry and there are attestations of blood being smeared on holy objects elsewhere in Western Scandinavia. InHyndluljóð,Freyja says about how one of her worshippers has made ahǫrgr ("altar") for her, faced with stone that was turned to glass and reddened with ox blood. Similarly, theU-version of Hervarar saga tells how a holy tree, referred to as ablóttre, is reddened with blood from a sacrificial horse. It is unclear if this is meant to be interpreted as a literal tree or as a platform or altar (véstallr,stallr orvéstalli). InYnglinga saga, the kingDómaldi is sacrificed in order to make their crops grow and they redden thestallar with his blood;Ynglingatal, the poem upon which this narrative is built, does not referencestallar but it does emphasise that the ground was reddened with blood. It has been suggested that the pouring of blood on the ground belowstallar may be related to the taking of soil from below thestallr by Þórólfr from Norway to Iceland during thesettlement of the island, as described inEyrbyggja saga. Religious objects are recorded as being reddened with blood duringblót, likeoath-rings according to theHauksbók version ofLandnámabók. The practice of collecting sacrificial blood and pouring it on altars is well attested in other cultures such as inAncient Greek andreligion and inJewish burnt offerings.^[20]

Along with having a role in divination, other suggestions for the importance of blood inblót have been put forward by scholars. It has been put forward that the violence used to kill the animals found at Hofstaðir may have acted as a way to remove tensions in the community. Olof Sundqvist instead proposes that the blood was used in a performative setting, creating a feeling of spectacle and that the event was strongly separate from usual daily life. If true, those participating in the ceremony would likely have become emotionally engaged in the ritual drama. He further suggests, consistent with ideas byBruce Lincoln, that there may have been a perceived connection between the killing during theblót and the killing ofYmir during the creation account told inGylfaginning, which acted as its mythic counterpart. In this context, the bloodshed may have signalled a renewal of the world, in which conditions would improve for those who performed theblót.^[21]

Sacrificial feasts (Old Norse:blótveizlur orblótdrykkjur) had a prominent place in the ancient religious practices of the Scandinavians, and were part of the seasonal festivals attended by large numbers of people. Family rituals such as theálfablót in western Sweden mentioned by the NorwegianskaldSigvatr Þórðarson in an early 11th-century poem, were usually performed on farm homesteads.^[22] Feasts and ritual drinking atblót are also mirrored in a mythological context in the depictions ofValhǫll inHákonarmál.^[23]

Horses are often recorded as being eaten inblótveizlur and theeating of horsemeat was made an offence punishable by fines andoutlawry by a number of medieval Scandinavian laws made after the adoption of Christianity, such as theBorgarthings-Lov,Den ældre Gulathings-Lov and theFrostathings-Lov. In Iceland, an exception was made for eating horsemeat in private for a short time after theestablishment of Christianity but was later repealed.^[24]

The ritual killing of animals was followed by feasts on the meat, as described in theEddic andScaldic poetry, the Icelandic sagas, and on rune stones.^[25] The meat was boiled in large cooking pits with heated stones, either indoors or outdoors, and ale ormead was drunk in the ceremony.^[26]

Sites suggesting religious feasting have been found in Scandinavia such as inMelhus where many cooking pits, mainly dating to between 900 and 1300 CE, were found containing bones of domesticated animals. The hearths in hall-room C at Borg inLofoten has also been suggested to have been the site of ritual cooking of meat from sacrificed animals. One large pit measuring around 6 m by 3 m has been interpreted as aseyðir (a cooking pit intended for ritual preparation of meat). TheOld Gutnish cognate term is found as a prefix inGuta saga, which describes those who partook inblót together assuþnautar ("boiling companions") as they cooked their meals made from sacrificed animals together.Seyðir andsuþ- are likely both related toGothic:sauþs ("sacrifice").^[27]

More than just a simple sacrifice,blót was central to all the ritual activities that took place in Norse sacral structures.^[11]

Bulls have been noted to have been often sacrificed when seeking help from the gods in legal matters.^[28]Blót are also often described as being performed in order to achieve good harvests, with some texts explicitly recording that they are heldtil árs ok friðar ("for a good harvest and peace"). The rituals are suggested to be effective by some sources such asFagrskinna, which notes thatHákon Sigurðarson restored the holy sites that had been damaged by Christians and made moreblót than before and soon a period of prosperity followed, with a greater grain harvest and abundance of herring. This has been argued to show an ideology that a legitimate ruler must protect holy places and upholdblót so as to maintain a good relationship with the gods, in turn leading to the good fortunes of the people.^[29]

Divination is suggested to have occurred at someblót and is recorded in Ynglinga saga in connection to asonarblót ("boar sacrifice"). This is not accepted universally by scholars, with Düwel arguing the link is only seen in Snorri's works. The link has been proposed to be seen elsewhere though, such as the compound wordblótspánn ("chip used in divination").^[19][30]

According toEyrbyggja saga, Þórólf Mostrarskeggi made preparations for his settlement of Iceland by performing ablót before he left Norway:

According to theSturlubók andHauksbók versions ofLandnámabók, a man named Ingólf prepared to settle in Iceland with his brother Hjörleif by performing ablót in a similar way to Þórólf:

Hjörleif was later killed by histhralls which Ingólf attributed to his refusal to uphold heathen customs. The book later states that no one dared live where Hjörleif had settled for fear of thelandvættir.^[34]

The holding ofblót and associated feasts were an opportunity for rulers to demonstrate their wealth and generosity and praise of these traits is recorded in sources such as the skaldic poemSigurðardrápa. Giving of gifts at feasts, such asrings, is well attested in Germanic texts such asEgils saga andBeowulf and has been proposed to have been a central practice in building loyalty to the king and strengthening authority.^[35] Displaying of heads of eaten animals may have created a degree of competition between communities and played into the wider strategy of rulership in Viking Age Iceland.^[24]

Scholars have debated the concept of religious leaders in Late Iron Age Scandinavia, with some such asFolke Ström supporting the idea that there was no professional priesthood and that rulers instead held this role. While this remains debated by scholars, there is no strong evidence for formal training into religious role whilst the organisation of sanctuaries andblót by elites is well attested in Old Norse texts.^[36]

Certain elites are highlighted for their participation inblót such asSigurðr Hlaðajarl who is calledinn mesti blótmaðr ("the most ardent heathen worshipper") and is described as having maintained all the sacrificial feasts in Trøndelag on behalf of the king. This concept is also attested on theStentoften stone which records that a man named HaþuwulfR, likely a local ruler, held ablót to give a good harvest. In Iceland,goðar ("chieftains") are often recorded as leading public religious activities includingblót.^[37]

Sources further describe how in both Norway and Svetjud, taking part in publicblót was required for the ruler to be accepted by their subjects.Hákonar saga góða tells how the Christian King Hákon came to Trøndelag and did not want to take part in theblót, upsetting the local farmers and chieftains. At theFrostaþing he was asked to partake in them as his father had done and he was later strongly pressured toeat horse liver at ablótveizla ("sacrificial feast") in Mære. Similarly, the heathen kingBlótsveinn took part in a horse sacrifice and ate horsemeat when becoming king of theSvear according toHervarar saga ok Heiðreks. The U-version of this saga further tells how Blótsveinn became king after his brother-in-law,Ingi, refused to uphold the old customs due to him being Christian and was thus driven away by the Svear toVästergötland. This closely resembles Adam of Bremen's description of kingAnunder who was also driven out for refusing to uphold the performing ofblót.^[38]

There is evidence ofblót being led by women such as thehúsfreyja ("housewife") inVǫlsa þáttr and possibly thehúsfreyja who is also mentioned as holdingálfablót inAustrfararvísur.^[39] Whilst absent from detailed accounts such as those inHákonar saga góða, this is consistent with a wider Germanic context of some women playing central roles in ceremonies, the holding of feasts and running of the farm. This is attested in written sources such asBeowulf,Egils saga and theHassmyra Runestone and is potentially also represented in the archaeological record in high status female burials.^[40]

Blót taking place at the beginning of winter in Norway and Iceland to celebratevetrnætr ("winter-nights") are recorded in multiple sources, such asGísla saga Súrssonar, in which thegoði Þorgrímr Þorsteinsson sacrifices to Freyr during the feast.^[41] This time has been suggested to have marked the beginning of the new year and may be the same as thedísablót, named for thedisir, which is recorded inYnglinga saga as having taken place inUppsala.^[42][43] Two furtherblót are attested as having taken place in Scandinavia, each in a single source.Völsa þáttr, preserved inFlateyjarbók, describes a family in Northern Norway at the beginning of the 11th century CE in whichblót are performed each night in the autumn to the preserved penis of a horse that had been previously killed. Análfablót is recorded as having taken place in autumn inSvetjud inAustrfaravísur, written around 1020 CE.^[44][45]

In Anglo-Saxon contexts,blót are recorded as occurring inBlōtmōnaþ, a month in theOld English calendar which roughly corresponds to theGregorian month ofNovember.^[46]

Otherblót are also recorded as having taken place in winter, such as themiðsvetrarblót inTrøndelag recorded in Heimskringla.^[47]Yule was celebrated in the middle of winter and had a diversity of religious components such as the performing ofblót andheitstrengingar.^[48][49] TheÞorrablót was held at midwinter in the month ofÞorri. TheOrkneyinga saga tells in anaetiological story that theblót got its name from the son ofKing Snær who held ablót every year at this time but it is more likely it got its name from the month.^[50]

Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar mentions amiðsumarsblót ("midsummer sacrifice") atMære.^[47][51] Furthermore,Ynglinga saga describes howOdin instituted three festivals in Sweden, one of which was thesigrblót ("sacrifice for victory"), which was to take place at the start of summer.^[52][53]

Saxo Grammaticus'sGesta Danorum tells howHadding, after having his fleet destroyed in a storm began sacrificing dark-coloured victims to Frey to regain his favourof the gods. The sacrifice was repeated yearly, being called by the Swedes the Frøblot^[54]

Thietmar of Merseburg wrote in his chronicle, dated to the early 11th century CE, that theDanes had their main cult centre onZealand atLejre and gathered there every nine years and held a large sacrifice:^[55]

It has been noted that at the time of Thietmar's writing, Denmark had been nominally Christian for nearly 50 years and it is unlikely that large scaleblót were still being performed at the end of the 10th century in Lejre. It has been further noted that Thietmar was determined to show the heathen Danes as being as ferocious and backwards as possible, using large numbers to show their barbarity. He further potentially based his description on existing literature available to him, which formed part of a long tradition of supposing thatheathens in general commonly sacrificed humans. Such sources would have allowed him to further dehumanise the Danish heathen population and depict them as evil.^[58]

The chroniclerAdam of Bremen has described ablót being performed every 9 years atTemple at Uppsala inSweden inGesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, written in the mid 11th century CE:^[59]

Rudolf Simek has argued that Adam of Bremen had a strong motive in his work to present both that aChristian mission to Scandinavia would be successful, while also emphasising the urgency as the heathens were still supposedly performing what he perceived as evil practices, such as performing blood sacrifices to idols. He proposes that he likely drew on accounts such as Thietmar of Merseburg's chronicle and this could have been the source of certain details such as it recurring every nine years, although the possibility does remain that similar sacrifices were held at both religious sites. Despite this, he argues there that the account is still informed by reliable sources and notable details are not found in sources that he would have had access to, such as the hanging of the sacrificed in trees.^[62]

Several conversionþættir, short stories concerned with reconciling Christian doctrine and heathen beliefs, presentblót as harmful practices that, whilst effective in bringing benefits to the community that performs them, function by empowering evil spirits that pose as the helpful beings in which the heathens believe.^[64]

The conversion þáttrÓláfs þáttr Geirstaðaálfs gives an account of Óláfr digrbeinn, a king who the author says predicted his own death and warned his people not to performblót to him after he dies, claiming that doing so turns the dead intotrolls. Following this, Óláfr explains that these demons can bring good harvests but are also harmful. After his death, bad harvests occur and the people ignore his requests and worship him, calling him "Geirstaðaálfr" ("theelf of Geirstad"). Shortly after this, the harvests improve though when they stop theirblót, the evil spirits that were receiving the gifts become angered. It has been proposed that this tale is the result of the author imperfectly trying to combine the ideas ofChristian demonology and "the noble heathen", who is meant to maintain his dignity after death.^[65]

Similarly in another conversion þáttr,Ögmundar þáttr dytts, the author equates Freyr and thedevil and explains that the constant offerings to the carving of Freyr have given the devil the ability to speak through it so as to strengthen their belief in Freyr. Later in the tale,Óláfr Tryggvason spiritually helps a Norwegian named Gunnar in defeating the devil, driving it out of the wooden carving. Gunnar then pretends to be Freyr, putting on the clothes of thecult image and accepting offerings of valuable gifts from the worshippers of the god, who stop sacrificing animals from then on.^[66]

TheAnglo-SaxonPenitential of Theodore imposes 1–10 years of penance for thosequi immolant demonibus ("who sacrifice to demons"). In this context, "demons" would likely have been used to refer to heathen gods and other beings connected to the cult, given that these were commonly equated in Christian thought. The penitential further prohibits the eating of food offered in sacrifices to the recipient being. Similar prohibitions are seen throughout later law codes in England such as the laws ofKing Wihtred of Kent.^[67] InNorðhymbra preosta lagu,blót are explicitly forbidden along with other practices deemed heathen such as idol-worship, with those caught performing them being made to pay 5 half-marks to the Church and 5 to the king.^[68]

Early Norwegian law codes explicitly forbid performing ofblót, making it a punishable offence. The Older Gulaþing Law, dating to around the mid 11th century CE, bans performing ofblót to heathen gods,howes orhǫrgar, listing it an offence for which the punishment is a fine, penance and if this is not followed, expulsion from the land. This is built upon in the ecclesiastical Law ofSverrir Sigurðarson, which further forbidsblót to heathenvættir, and is consistent with theFrostaþing law which likewise bansblót.^[69][70] When Christianity was adopted as the main religion of Iceland,blót were allowed for a short time, as long as they were performed in private, with the punishment being lesseroutlawry if they were observed publicly. This exception was soon repealed and the practice was fully banned.^[71]

TheAf blotan section ofGutalagen, the legal code for Gotland, imposes fines for those who performblót, along with those who follow heathen customs more widely. It further specifies that it is forbidden to make invocations with food or drink if they are not following Christian customs.^[72][73][74] In Sweden, theUpplandslagen forbadeveneration of groves and stones, and sacrificing toaffguþum ("idols").^[73]

Upon adoption of Christianity by the elite, ritual drinking atblót was sometimesblended with the incoming traditions, as recorded in the late 12th-centuryhistory of the kings of NorwayÁgrip when KingÓláfr Tryggvason:

This process of incorporating pre-existing heathen traditions into Christian traditions is likely also seen with the ritual formulatil árs ok friðar ("for good harvest and peace"). In Hákonar saga góða it is used as part ofNjörðr's andFreyr's toast, while other sources record it being used in a Christian context. Den ældre Gulathings-Lov, for example, states that the beer drunk duringAll Saint's Day andChristmas should be consecrated to thankChrist andMarytil árs. oc til friðar ("For property and peace").^[76]

After the banning ofblót by church officials, the giving of food and drink to beings believed to inhabit the landscape continued as part of local folk practices. This includes the offering to house spirits such astomter in Sweden which is recorded throughout history such as in medieval criticisms by individuals such asheliga Birgitta andOlaus Magnus and folktales as late as the 20th century.^[77] Further, theblót atYule may be the origin of the practice inOrkney recorded in the 18th century by which each family inSandwick that rears pigs would slaughter one sow on the 17th of December which was known as Sow Day.^[78] A similar practice is recorded in the 19th century in which each household onNorth Ronaldsay slaughtered a sheep known as the Yule sheep on Christmas Eve.^[79]

Reconstructionist adherents ofcontemporary Germanic paganism have developed traditions ofblót rituals celebrated in a contemporary context since the 1970s.^[80] In these practices, animal sacrifice is usually replaced with offerings of food or drink, although there remains a large focus on sharing food and strengthening relationships.^[81]

• Eucharist, a Christian rite involving eating and drinking
• Lác, an Old English word derived from a term for ritual
• Shechita, ritual slaughter in Judaism
• Qurban (Islamic ritual sacrifice)

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• Germanic animal sacrifice
• Ceremonies
• Viking practices
• Spiritual practice

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