The term "biscuit" is used in many English-speaking countries. In the United States and parts of Canada, sweet biscuits are nearly always called "cookies" and savoury biscuits are called "crackers".
North American biscuit (left) and British biscuits of thebourbon variety (right). The North American biscuit is soft and flaky like ascone, whereas the British biscuits are smaller, drier, sweeter, and crunchy likecookies.
Small, hard, flour-based baked products are known in many English speaking countries as biscuits.[1] In the United States and sometimes Canada, this word refers to aquick bread that is like ascone, but with a fluffier texture (seebiscuit (bread)), and what are known in many English speaking countries are called either a cookie or cracker.[2] Canadians sometimes distinguish the quick bread with the name "tea biscuit".[3] In the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and Ireland,cookie refers to a single type of biscuit: the sweeter baked dough typically containing chocolate chips or raisins. In Scotland,cookie is also used to refer to some specific types of biscuits or breads.[4] Historically in theUnited Kingdom, quick breads were known as biscuits. This practice has ended in England, although it has remained in Scotland andGuernsey.[5]
A selection of biscuits, as served inGhanaDutchspeculaas biscuit in various shapes: ship, farmhouse, elephant, horse
The word biscuit comes from theOld French wordbescuit, which was derived from theLatin wordsbis ('twice') andcoquere, coctus ('to cook', 'cooked'), and, hence, means 'twice-cooked'.[6][n 1] This is because biscuits were originally cooked in a twofold process: first baked, and then dried out in a slow oven.[7]
The need for nutritious, easy-to-store, easy-to-carry, and long-lasting foods on long journeys, in particular at sea, was initially solved by taking livestock along with a butcher/cook. However, this took up additional space on what were either horse-powered treks or small ships, reducing the time of travel before additional food was required. This resulted in early armies' adopting the style of hunter-foraging.
The introduction of thebaking of processed cereals, including the creation of flour, provided a more reliable source of food.Egyptian sailors carried a flat, brittle loaf ofmillet bread calleddhourra cake while theRomans had a biscuit calledbuccellum.[8] Roman cookbookApicius describes: "a thick paste of fine wheat flour was boiled and spread out on a plate. When it had dried and hardened, it was cut up and then fried until crisp, then served with honey and pepper."
Many early physicians believed that most medicinal problems were associated withdigestion. Hence, for both sustenance and avoidance of illness, a daily consumption of a biscuit was considered good for health.
Hard biscuits soften as they age. To solve this problem, early bakers attempted to create the hardest biscuit possible. Because it is so hard and dry, if properly stored and transported, navies'hardtack will survive rough handling and high temperature.Baked hard, it can be kept without spoiling for years as long as it is kept dry. For long voyages, hardtack was baked four times, rather than the more common two.[9] To soften hardtack for eating, it was often dunked inbrine, coffee, or some other liquid orcooked into a skillet meal.
The collectionSayings of the Desert Fathers mentions thatAnthony the Great (who lived in the 4th century AD) ate biscuits and the text implies that it was a popular food among monks of the time and region.[10]
At the time of theSpanish Armada in 1588, the daily allowance on board aRoyal Navy ship was one pound of biscuit plus one gallon of beer.Samuel Pepys in 1667 first regularised naval victualling with varied and nutritious rations. Royal Navy hardtack duringQueen Victoria's reign was made by machine at the Royal Clarence Victualling Yard atGosport, Hampshire, stamped with the Queen's mark and the number of the oven in which they were baked. When machinery was introduced into the process the dough was thoroughly mixed and rolled into sheets about 2 yards (1.8 m) long and 1 yard (0.9 m) wide which were stamped in one stroke into about sixty hexagonal-shaped biscuits. This left the sheets sufficiently coherent to be placed in the oven in one piece and when baked they were easy to separate. The hexagonal shape rather than traditional circular biscuits meant a saving in material and was easier to pack.[11] Biscuits remained an important part of the Royal Navy sailor's diet until the introduction ofcanned foods. Canned meat was first marketed in 1814; preserved beef in tins was officially added to Royal Navy rations in 1847.[8]
Early biscuits were hard, dry, and unsweetened. They were most often cooked after bread, in a cooling bakers' oven; they were a cheap form of sustenance for the poor.
By the 7th century AD, cooks of theSassanian Empire had learnt from their forebears the techniques of lightening and enriching bread-based mixtures with eggs, butter, and cream, and sweetening them with fruit and honey.[12] One of the earliest spiced biscuits wasgingerbread, in French,pain d'épices, meaning "spice bread", brought to Europe in 992 by theArmenian monk Grégoire deNicopolis. He left Nicopolis Pompeii, ofLesser Armenia to live inBondaroy, France, near the town ofPithiviers. He stayed there for seven years and taught French priests and Christians how to cook gingerbread.[13][14][15] This was originally a dense,treaclely (molasses-based) spice cake or bread. As it was so expensive to make, earlyginger biscuits were a cheap form of using up the leftover bread mix.
With the combination of knowledge spreading fromAl-Andalus, and then theCrusades and subsequent spread of thespice trade to Europe, the cooking techniques and ingredients of Arabia spread into Northern Europe.[12] Bymediaeval times, biscuits were made from a sweetened, spiced paste of breadcrumbs and then baked (e.g., gingerbread), or from cooked bread enriched with sugar and spices and then baked again.[17]King Richard I of England (aka Richard the Lionheart) left for theThird Crusade (1189–92) with "biskit of muslin", which was a mixed corn compound ofbarley,rye, andbean flour.[8]
As the making and quality of bread had been controlled to this point, so were the skills of biscuit-making through thecraft guilds.[12] As the supply of sugar began, and the refinement and supply of flour increased, so did the ability to sample more leisurely foodstuffs, including sweet biscuits. Early references from theVadstena monastery show how the Swedishnuns were baking gingerbread to ease digestion in 1444.[18] The first documented trade of gingerbread biscuits dates to the 16th century, where they were sold in monastery pharmacies and town square farmers markets. Gingerbread became widely available in the 18th century. TheIndustrial Revolution in Britain sparked the formation of businesses in various industries, and the British biscuit firms ofMcVitie's,Carr's,Huntley & Palmers, andCrawfords were all established by 1850.[19]
Chocolate and biscuits became products for the masses, thanks to the Industrial Revolution and the consumers it created. By the mid-19th century, sweet biscuits were an affordable indulgence and business was booming. Manufacturers such asHuntley & Palmers in Reading,Carr's of Carlisle andMcVitie's in Edinburgh transformed from small family-run businesses into state-of-the-art operations.
British biscuit companies vied to dominate the market with new products and eye-catching packaging.[20] The decorativebiscuit tin, invented by Huntley & Palmers in 1831, saw British biscuits exported around the world.[20] In 1900 Huntley & Palmers biscuits were sold in 172 countries, and their global reach was reflected in their advertising.[21] Competition and innovation among British firms saw 49 patent applications for biscuit-making equipment, tins, dough-cutting machines and ornamental moulds between 1897 and 1900.[20] In 1891,Cadbury filed a patent for achocolate-coated biscuit.[20] Along with local farm produce of meat and cheese, many regions of the world have their own distinct style of biscuit due to the historic prominence of this form of food. The Scots, for example, createdshortbread, and in 1898 the Scottish manufacturerWalker's Shortbread was founded.[22]
1891 advertisement in London forPeek Freans, a brand exported to Asia
Biscuits andloaves were introduced inBengal during the British colonial period and became popular within theSylhetiMuslim community. However, the middle-classHindus ofCachar andSylhet were very suspicious of biscuits and breads as they believed they were baked by Muslims. On one occasion, a few Hindus in Cachar caught an Englishman eating biscuits with tea, which caused an uproar. The information reached the Hindus of Sylhet and a small rebellion occurred. In response to this, companies started to advertise their bread as "machine-made" and "untouched by (Muslim) hand" to tell Hindus that the breads were "safe for consumption". This incident is mentioned inBipin Chandra Pal's autobiography and he mentions how culinary habits of Hindus gradually changed and biscuits and loaves eventually became increasingly popular.[23]
Crackers are savoury biscuits with a "crispy, open texture".[24]: 2 They include biscuits such ascream crackers, "Ritz-type" crackers,saltines, snack crackers (e.g.Arnott's Shapes) andwater biscuits.[24]: 2 Cracker doughs often have some of the following features: they are leavened, have a water content between 15–25%, arelaminated and rise during the first part of baking.[24]: 3–4
In a general process to make crackers, dough is mixed and fermented. It is fed through a dough feed conveyer to be laminated,sheeted and cut. It is baked, sprayed with oil and cooled, before finally being packed. Baking surfaces differ by the country biscuits are baked in: traditional British biscuits being baked on light wire mesh, while American biscuits are baked on heavy mesh. The baking process requires high amounts of energy to get the relatively high hydration doughs to a final biscuit that is 1.5–2.5% water.[24]: 4
Semi-sweet biscuits are distinguished by a their consistent texture and colour. This consistency, and a voluminous appearance are a product primarily of the presence of humidity during the first part of baking.[24]: 4–6 Examples of semi-sweet biscuits includeArrowroot,Belvita,Marie,Petit-Beurre andRich tea. The doughs of semi-sweet biscuits have strong gluten, making it shrink during baking. They have low sugar and fat contents, and their water content, about 12%, is reduced to 1.5–3% through the baking process.[24]: 5 In making semi-sweet biscuits, the dough is mixed, fed, undergoes sheeting and is cut and baked. The biscuits are cooled before they are processed through stacking and/or packing.[24]: 6
Biscuits contain relatively high amounts of sugar and fat. The category covers many regional specialties, including the Britishcustard cream and digestives, the Dutchspeculaas, the Indian glucose biscuit and the Scottishshortbread. It also covers more generic biscuits ofLincoln andmalted milk. Short biscuits are the simplest biscuits to make, which has led to them being widely produced in great volumes. They are frequently fortified. Short dough biscuits have a relatively low water content, and are cooked slower, and at low temperatures than crackers and semi-sweet biscuits.[24]: 6
Short doughs are produced through a two stage mixing process. The dough is stood, fed and undergoes rotary moulding, the step by which short biscuits derive their alternative name of rotary moulded biscuits. They are baked, cooled and stacked and packed. The structure is derived from a high humidity during early stages of baking[24]: 6–7
The widest category, cookies have very soft doughs. They are often baked directly on a steel oven band. Cookies have high sugar and fat contents, and are cooked longer than other biscuits at relatively low temperatures. Through the presence of humidity during the first stage of cooking, cookies spread as they are baked. Many cookies contain inclusions, such as nuts, chocolate chips (chocolate chip cookie) and fruits (e.g. raisins and figs infig rolls). They includebutter cookies, extruded cookies and cookies with their centres filled.[24]: 6
Cookies are produced through mixing a dough in two stages. The dough is baked on a steel oven band. It is then cooled and finally stacked and/or packed.[24]: 10
Dunking a biscuitMilk chocolateTim Tams, a biscuit created in Australia in 1964
Biscuits are eaten worldwide by people from many cultures.[28]: 3
In British culture, thedigestive biscuit andrich tea biscuit are the traditional accompaniment to a cup of tea and are regularly eaten as such.[29] Some tea drinkersdunk biscuits in tea, allowing them to absorb liquid and soften slightly before consumption.[30]Chocolate digestives, rich tea, andHobnobs were ranked the UK's top three favourite dunking biscuits in 2009.[30] In a non-dunking poll the Chocolate Hobnob was ranked first with custard creams coming third.[31][32]
Brands in the European biscuit market are unusually old for the food and drink industry, with the main brands as of 2016 being on average 100 years old. Historically in these companies, the owners and top-level managers were heavily involved in brand management.[28]: 2–3
^"cookie".Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press.In Scotland the usual name for a baker's plain bun; in U.S. usually a small flat sweet cake (a biscuit in U.K.), but locally a name for small cakes of various form with or without sweetening. Also S. Afr. and Canad.
^page 23, paragraph 20: "At one time Abba Agathon had two disciples each leading the anchoretic life according to his own measure. One day he asked the first, 'How do you live in the cell?' He replied, 'I fast until the evening, then I eat two hard biscuits.' He said to him, 'Your way of life is good, not overburdened with too much asceticism.' Then he asked the other one, 'And you, how do you live?' He replied, 'I fast for two days, then I eat two hard biscuits.' The old man said, 'You work very hard by enduring two conflicts; it is a labour for someone to eat every day without greed; there are others who, wishing to fast for two days, are greedy afterwards; but you, after fasting for two days, are not greedy.'"http://www.g4er.tk/books/sayings-of-the-desert-fathers.pdf
^The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol III, (1847), London, Charles Knight, p.354.
^"Britain's top 20 favourite types of biscuit ranked".Wales Online. Retrieved22 August 2021.the Chocolate Digestive is the best biscuit in the whole of the United Kingdom with more than two thirds of Brits picking
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