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Bioregionalism is a philosophy that suggests thatpolitical,cultural, andeconomic systems are moresustainable andjust if they are organized around naturally defined areas calledbioregions (similar toecoregions). Bioregions are defined through physical and environmental features, includingwatershed boundaries andsoil andterrain characteristics. Bioregionalism stresses that the determination of a bioregion is also acultural phenomenon, and emphasizes local populations, knowledge, and solutions.^{[1][example needed]}

Bioregionalism is a concept that goes beyondnational boundaries—an example is the concept ofCascadia, a region that is sometimes considered to consist of most ofOregon andWashington, theAlaska Panhandle, the far north ofCalifornia and theWest Coast of Canada, sometimes also including some or all ofIdaho andwestern Montana.^[2] Another example of a bioregion, which does not cross national boundaries, but does overlap state lines, isthe Ozarks, a bioregion also referred to as the Ozarks Plateau, which consists of southernMissouri, northwestArkansas, the northeast corner ofOklahoma, southeast corner ofKansas.^[3]

Bioregions are not synonymous with ecoregions as defined by organizations such as theWorld Wildlife Fund,One Earth, or theCommission for Environmental Cooperation; the latter are scientifically based and focused on ecology. Bioregions, by contrast, are watershed focused, factoring in humans and informed by ecology, geology, and biology. In this way, bioregionalism is effectivelykincentric ecology with a focus on bioregions.

The term was coined by Allen Van Newkirk, founder of the Institute for Bioregional Research, in 1975,^[4] given currency byPeter Berg andRaymond F. Dasmann in the early 1970s,^[5] and has been advocated by writers such as David Haenke^[6] andKirkpatrick Sale.^[7]

The bioregionalist perspective opposes a homogeneous economy and consumer culture with its lack of stewardship towards the environment. This perspective seeks to:

• Ensure that political boundaries match ecological boundaries.^[8]
• Highlight the uniqueecology of the bioregion.
• Encourage consumption oflocal foods where possible.
• Encourage the use of localmaterials where possible.
• Encourage the cultivation ofnative plants of the region.
• Encouragesustainability in harmony with the bioregion.^[9]

Bioregions are a foundational concept within the philosophical system called Bioregionalism. A bioregion is defined alongwatershed andhydrological boundaries, and uses a combination of bioregional layers, beginning with the oldest "hard" lines;geology,topography,tectonics,wind,fracture zones andcontinental divides, working its way through the "soft" lines: living systems such assoil,ecosystems,climate, marine life, and theflora andfauna, and lastly the "human" lines: humangeography,energy,transportation,agriculture,food,music,language,history,indigenous cultures, and ways of living within the context set into a place, and its limits to determine the final edges and boundaries.^[10][11][12]

Peter Berg and Judy Goldhaft who founded the Planet Drum foundation in 1973 and helped to popularize the concept of bioregions and bioregionalism,^[13][14] located inSan Francisco and which just celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2023 defines a bioregion as the following:^[15]:

A bioregion is a geographical area with coherent and interconnected plant and animal communities, and other natural characteristics (often defined by a watershed) plus the cultural values that humans have developed for living in harmony with these natural systems. Because it is a cultural idea, the description of a specific bioregion uses information from both the natural sciences and other sources.Each bioregion is a whole “life-place” with unique requirements for human inhabitation so that it will not be disrupted and injured. People are counted as an integral aspect of a place’s life.^[13]

This idea of bioregionalism is also rooted in an important concept calledbioregional mapping, a powerful tool to increase understanding, change the story and influence policy. Bioregional Mapping is a participatory approach to cartography that focuses on mapping the natural, ecological and human realities of that have emerged in a place within a bioregion—an area defined by its natural boundaries, such as watersheds, ecosystems, and cultures that arise form a place, rather than human borders. This method highlights the interconnectedness of the region's natural systems and human communities, offering a holistic view of the landscape that integrates ecological data with cultural and historical insights.^[16][17][18]

A good bioregional map shows layers of geology, flora, fauna, and inhabitation over time. This approach empowers individuals to contribute to the documentation of local knowledge, history, and cultural significance, thereby creating maps that are more inclusive and representative of the lived experiences within the bioregion. Community mapping includes the identification of traditional pathways, local species, historical landmarks, stories, songs, how things change over time, and other culturally significant sites that might not appear on standard maps.^[19][20]

Bioregional mapping also aligns withIndigenous mapping practices by recognizing the importance of natural boundaries and the relationship between people and their environment. The idea of bioregional mapping largely grew from theTsleil-Waututh First Nation,Nisga'a,Tsilhqotʼin,Wetʼsuwetʼen first nations who used Bioregional Mapping to create some of the first bioregional atlases as part of court cases to defend their sovereignty in the 1980s and 1990s, one such example being theTsilhqotʼin Nation v British Columbia.^[21][22]

One of the best examples of a richly communicative bioregional map is David McClosky'snew map of Cascadia.

Bioregionalism, while akin to modernenvironmentalism in certain aspects, such as a desire to live in harmony withnature, differs in certain ways from the 20th century movement.^[23]

According to Peter Berg, bioregionalism isproactive, and is based on forming a harmony between human culture and the natural environment, rather than beingprotest-based like the original environmental movement. Also, modern environmentalists saw human industry in and of itself an enemy of environmental stability, viewing nature as a victim needing to be saved; bioregionalists see humanity and its culture as a part of nature, focusing on building a positive, sustainable relationship with both the sociological and ecological environments, rather than a focus oncompletely preserving and segregating thewilderness from the world of humanity.^[23]

In this way the sentiments of Bioregionalism echo those ofClassical Environmentalism, and early environmentalists such asHenry David Thoreau are sometimes viewed as predecessors of the Bioregionalist movement.

Bioregionalism emerged in the 1970s, developing primarily along the western coast of North America, and specifically from a broad coalition of poets, artists, writers, community leaders, and back-to-the-landers, and from theDigger movement which had grown in the late 1960sBeat Scene in San Francisco, and as a counter to the mainstream environmental movement, which many felt was reactionary and negative. They envisioned a positive, place-based^{[clarification needed]} alternative to mainstream efforts within a capitalist framework, or those of nation-states or other international bodies.^[24] This included many different individuals, including "Peter Berg, Judy Goldhaft, Raymond Dasmann, Kirkpatrick Sale, Judith Plant, Eleanor Wright, Doug Aberley, Stephanie Mills, Jim Dodge, Freeman House, Van Andruss, David Haenke, and Gary Snyder", working together through the Planet Drum foundation, and similar groups to create a new place-based philosophy they called bioregionalism.^[24]

Bioregionalism also directly grew from a relationship with the civil rights andAmerican Indian Movement, and efforts to reclaim their languages, territories and maps, and what bioregionalists saw as the global collapse of traditional ecological knowledge, language suppression and revitalization, and a hope that maps reframing names from "North America" to "Turtle Island" would help bioregions become frameworks for decolonization, as well as more accurate cultural representation and recognition of Indigenous sovereignty. It also grew from civil rights movement, anti-war movement, anti-nuclear movement, the Diggers, as well as an increasing awareness of pervasive ecological pollution, especially in areas like Los Angeles.^[25][26][27]

The term bioregion as it relates to bioregionalism is credited to Allen Van Newkirk, a Canadian poet and biogeographer.^[28][29][30] In this field, the idea of "bioregion" probably goes back much earlier than published material suggests, being floated in early published small press zines by Newkirk, and in conversational dialogue.^[31] He would go on to found the Institute for Bioregional Research and issued a series of short papers using the term bioregion as early as 1970, which would start to circulate the idea of "bioregion". Newkirk met Peter Berg (another early scholar on Bioregionalism) in San Francisco in 1969 and again in Nova Scotia in 1971 where he shared the idea with Berg. Peter Berg, who would go on to found the Planet Drum foundation, and become a leading proponent of "bioregions" learned of the term in 1971 while Judy Goldhaft and Peter Berg were staying with Allen Van Newkirk, before Berg attended the first United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm during June 1972.^[32][33] Berg would go on to found the Planet Drum Foundation in 1973, and they published their first Bioregional Bundle in that year, that also included a definition of a bioregion.^[34][35] Helping refine this definition, AuthorKirkpatrick Sale wrote in 1974 that "A bioregion is a part of the earth's surface whose rough boundaries are determined by natural rather than human dictates, distinguishable from other areas by attributes of flora, fauna, water, climate, soils and landforms, and human settlements and cultures those attributes give rise to.^[36] in 1975 A. Van Newkirk published the first article calling for bioregionalism in a paper entitled "Bioregions: Towards Bioregional Strategy for Human Cultures" in which he advocates for the incorporation of human activity ("occupying populations of the culture-bearing animal") within bioregional definitions.^[37]

Starting in 1973, Planet Drum Foundation in San Francisco became a leading institution promoting bioregionalism. They published a series of publications looking at place, poetry, cultural expression, politics, art and many other subjects. From this group, other early bioregional groups started, such as the Frisco Bay Mussel Group, Raise the Stakes newsletters, and Bioregional Bundles that would carry the bioregional movement forward for the next several decades.

This started by creating bioregional "Bundles" that they would publish each year, that would be distinct to a bioregion, and help the people within that place define that bioregion. Each envelope would contain many different pieces of poetry, art, writing, science documents, and place-specific technology booklets, articles, maps, posters, photographs, directories, and calendars.^[38] From 1973 to 1985 Planet Drum published nine Bundles, on topics ranging as far as North America, South America, the Arctic Circle, West Africa, Morocco, the Pacific Rim, Japan, and China.^[38] From 1979 to 2000, Planet Drum began publishingRaise The Stakes,the Planet Drum Review, a bi-annual international publication which became an important central voice for the bioregional movement, bioregional organizers around North America and world, and for defining the term bioregion among those using it.^[39] By 1990, Planet Drum served as node for more than 250 bioregionally oriented groups in North America, including Canada and Mexico, with emerging movements in Australia, Latin America, Italy and Spain.^[40]

One of the other early proponents of bioregionalism, and who helped define what a bioregion is, was American biologist and environmental scientistRaymond F. Dasmann. Dasmann studied at UC Berkeley under the legendary wildlife biologistAldo Leopold, and earned his Ph.D. in zoology in 1954. Working withPeter Berg, and also contemporary with Allen Van Newkirk, Dasmann was one of the pioneers in developing the definition for the term "Bioregion", as well as conservation concepts of "Eco-development" and "biological diversity", and identified the crucial importance of recognizing indigenous peoples and their cultures in efforts to conserve natural landscapes.^[41] He began his academic career at Humboldt State University, where he was a professor of natural resources from 1954 until 1965. During the 1960s, he worked at theConservation Foundation in Washington, D.C., as Director of International Programs and was also a consultant on the development of the 1972Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment. In the 1970s he worked withUNESCO where he initiated theMan and the Biosphere Programme (MAB), an international research and conservation program. During the same period he was Senior Ecologist for theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature in Switzerland, initiating global conservation programs which earned him the highest honors awarded byThe Wildlife Society, and theSmithsonian Institution.^[42][43]

This idea was carried forward and developed by ecologist Raymond Dasmann and Peter Berg in article they co-authored called Reinhabiting California in 1977, which argued that bioregions were more than just biotic provinces and biogeography, and that humans are a critical part of the idea of bioregions.^{[44][45][46][47]} Peter Berg and ecologist Raymond Dasmann said in their 1977 article "Reinhabiting California":

Reinhabitation involves developing a bioregional identity, something most North Americans have lost or have never possessed. We define bioregion in a sense different from the biotic provinces of Raymond Dasmann (1973) or the biogeographical province of Miklos Udvardy. The term refers both to geographical terrain and a terrain of consciousness—to a place and the ideas that have developed about how to live in that place. Within a bioregion, the conditions that influence life are similar, and these, in turn, have influenced human occupancy.

This article defined bioregions as distinct from biogeographical and biotic provinces that ecologists and geographers had been developing by adding a human and cultural lens to the strictly ecological idea.^[48][49][50]

This new movement grew strongly also on earlier work fromMurray Bookchin, who ran theInstitute for Social Ecology, and was deeply involved in influencing and helping define the early bioregional movement. Drawing on earlier traditions beginning with Ecology and Revolutionary Thought in 1964 Bookchin argued for the reorganization of American society based upon a decentralized regional model which would each encompass a single bioregion or ecosystem. His organization, the Institute for Social Ecology worked with the Planet Drum Foundation for the increased implementation of alternative forms of energy, reduction and restriction of carbon dioxide emissions, anti-globalism, and the implementation of a bioregional approach to economic development. For Bookchin, a bioregional approach to economic development accepted one of the basic assertions of Social Ecology that a human community is fundamentally a part of a total ecosystem.^[51] Furthermore, Bookchin felt that humans were a part of an earth society:

We might also conceive of this role as an expression of a kind of citizenship—if we think of ourselves not only as citizens of a town, city or neighborhood, but also as citizens of our ecosystem, of our bioregion, of our georegion, and of the earth itself.

Peter Berg, writing about his experience helping to write the "Bioregions" issue of Coevolution Quarterly in the late 70's worked with Bookchin' to use his Ecology of Freedom, which Berg claimed to be an "invaluable help to set the autonomous and self-governing tone of bioregional discourse."^[52]

A major evolution in how bioregions were defined also occurred alongside this work in the mid-1980s, and can be attributed to David Haenke (b. 1945). Inspired by the call of Peter Berg, who released "Amble towards a Continental Congress"^[53] in 1976 for the bicentennial of the United States founding, Haenke conceptualized the Ozark Area Community Congress in 1977, started the Bioregional Project in 1982, launched the Ozarks Bioregional Congress in 1980, and then launched the first ever North American Bioregional Congress (NABC) in 1984.^[54][55][56]

David Haenke would also go on to be one of the founders of the United States Green Party, which he viewed as a political wing of the bioregional movement.^[57]

David Haenke had two questions he asked while defining a bioregion:

In defining a bioregion there are two main questions that you’ll need to ask: What is your effective organizing area? What and where are your resources and potential participants? Bioregional boundaries are never "hard." There is no bioregional map of North America or the world, but the closest base maps are things like World Biogeographical Provinces Map by Miklos Udvardy and Ted Oberlander. But these provinces are huge, containing a number of bioregions that are not yet delineated. Many people use watersheds as ultimate definers, and if your group identifies strongly with a particular watershed, hydrologic survey maps may help you determine borders.

From 1984 through the 2010s, many regional groups, such as the Great Lakes, Kansas, Cascadia, would hold regional "Bioregional Congresses" for specific bioregions, and then every two years would gather as part of a North American bioregional congress.^[58] Cascadia for example held its first Cascadia Bioregional Congress at The Evergreen State College in 1986,^[59] an Ish River confluence in 1987,^[60] another Bioregional Congress in 1988 at Breitenbush in Oregon,^[61] and a third congress in Lillooet in British Columbia in 1989. This was also timed for the third North American Bioregional Congress which took place in Samish in 1988.^[62][63]

The idea of bioregions, and their uses was again expanded byDonella Meadows, author ofThe Limits to Growth in 1972, and was the primary premise for her to launch theBalaton Group in 1982. A big part of this for her, was using bioregions as the basis for "bioregional learning centers", each of which would be responsible for a discrete bioregion. In her words, the purpose of a bioregion was to:^[64][65][66]

Help people and cultures all over the world develop and express their own capacity to solve their own problems, consistent with their own needs and with the ecosystems around them. And doing that through enhancing the power within all cultures and peoples to combine intellectual knowing and intuitive knowing, reasoning about the earth and living in consonance with it, and of a number of centers where information and models about resources and the environment are housed. There would need to be many of these centers, all over the world, each one responsible for a discrete bioregion.

North American Bioregional Assemblies have been meeting at bi-annual gatherings of bioregionalists throughout North America since 1984 and have given rise to national levelGreen Parties. The tenets of bioregionalism are often used by green movements, which oppose political organizations whose boundaries conform to existing electoral districts. This problem is perceived to result in elected representatives voting in accordance with their constituents, some of whom may live outside a defined bioregion, and may run counter to the well-being of the bioregion.

At the local level, several bioregions have congresses that meet regularly. For instance, the Ozark Plateau bioregion hosts a yearly Ozark Area Community Congress, better known as OACC, which has been meeting every year since 1980,^[67] most often on the first weekend in October. The Kansas Area Watershed (KAW) was founded in 1982 and has been meeting regularly since that time.^[68] KAW holds a yearly meeting, usually in the spring.

The government of the Canadian province of Alberta created the "land-use framework regions" in 2007 roughly corresponding to each majorriver basin within the province. This is supported by local initiatives such as theBeaver Hills Initiative to preserve an ecoregion which encompassesElk Island National Park and the surrounding area.^[69]

• Alexander, D. (1990). "Bioregionalism: Science or sensibility?"Environmental Ethics, 12(2), 161-173.DOI:10.5840/enviroethics199012217. Retrieved from:http://hdl.handle.net/10613/2725
• Mike Carr,Bioregionalism and Civil Society: Democratic Challenges to Corporate Globalism, UBC Press, 2004.ISBN 978-0774809443.
• Peter Berg, editor.Reinhabiting A Separate Country: A Bioregional Anthology of Northern California. San Francisco: Planet Drum, 1978.ISBN 0-937102-00-8.
• Peter Berg,Envisioning Sustainability, Subculture Books, 2009.ISBN 978-0-9799194-8-0.
• Michael McGinnis, editor.Bioregionalism, Routledge, 1998.ISBN 0-415-15445-6.
• Ryan Moothart.Towards Cascadia. Minneapolis, MN: Mill City Press.ISBN 978-1-63505-158-2.
• Kirkpatrick Sale,Dwellers in the Land: The Bioregional Vision. Random House, 1985.ISBN 0-8203-2205-9 (University of Georgia Press, 2000).
• Kuperus, Gerard (2020)."Bioregionalism".The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Urban and Regional Futures.Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–3.doi:10.1007/978-3-030-51812-7_150-1.ISBN 978-3-030-51812-7.
• Gary Snyder.A Place in Space: Ethics, Aesthetics, and Watersheds. Counterpoint, 1995.ISBN 1-887178-27-9
• Robert Thayer.LifePlace: Bioregional Thought and Practice, University of California Press, 2003.ISBN 0-520-23628-9
• Emanuele Guerrieri Ciaceri.Bioregionalismo. La visione locale di un mondo globale. Argo Edizioni, Italia 2006.ISBN 978-88-88659-19-0
• Doug Aberley, editor.Boundaries of Home: Mapping for Local Empowerment. New Society Publishers, 1998.ISBN 978-0-86571-272-0

• FreeCascadia.org, the website belonging to Alexander Baretich, designer of theCascadian flag, and advocate of Bioregionalism.
• Encyclopedia of Earth: Ecoregion
• North American Bioregional Congress
• Ozark Area Community Congress
• Planet Drum Foundation website.
• Putah-Cache Bioregion ProjectArchived 2006-07-12 at theWayback Machine - interdisciplinary research and educational project atUC Davis
• Bioregionalism atColumbia Encyclopedia, 2020

• Deep ecology
• Ecology terminology
• Sustainable design
• Anarchist theory
• Ecoregions
• Cultural politics
• Localism (politics)
• Environmental movements
• Social model

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