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In the study of thebiological sciences,biocommunication is any specific type ofcommunication within (intraspecific) or between (interspecific)species ofplants,animals,fungi,[1][2]protozoa andmicroorganisms.[3]Communication meanssign-mediatedinteractions following three levels of rules (syntactic,pragmatic andsemantic). Signs in most cases are chemicalmolecules (semiochemicals),[4] but also tactile, or as in animals alsovisual andauditive. Biocommunication of animals may include vocalizations (as between competing bird species), orpheromone production (as between various species of insects),[5] chemical signals between plants and animals (as intannin production used byvascular plants to warn away insects), and chemically mediated communication between plants[6][7] and within plants.[8]
Biocommunication offungi demonstrates thatmycelia communication integrates interspecific sign-mediated interactions between fungal organisms, soilbacteria and plant root cells without which plant nutrition could not be organized.[9] Biocommunication ofCiliates identifies the various levels and motifs of communication in theseunicellulareukaryotes.[10] Biocommunication ofArchaea represents key levels of sign-mediated interactions in the evolutionarily oldestakaryotes.[11] Biocommunication ofphages demonstrates that the most abundant living agents on this planet coordinate and organize by sign-mediated interactions.[12] Biocommunication is the essential tool to coordinate behavior of various cell types ofimmune systems.[13]
Biocommunication theory may be considered to be a branch ofbiosemiotics. Whereas biosemiotics studies the production and interpretation of signs andcodes, biocommunication theory investigates concrete interactions in and between cells, tissues, organs and organismus mediated by signs. Accordingly,syntactic,semantic, andpragmatic aspects of biocommunication processes are distinguished.[14] Biocommunication specific to animals (animal communication) is considered a branch ofzoosemiotics.[15] The semiotic study ofmolecular genetics can be considered a study of biocommunication at its most basic level.[16]
Interpreting stimuli from the environment is an essential part of life for any organism.[17]Abiotic things that an organism must interpret includeclimate (weather, temperature, rainfall),geology (rocks,soil type), andgeography (location of vegetation communities, exposure to elements, location of food and water sources relative to shelter sites).[18]
Birds, for example,migrate using cues such as the approaching weather orseasonal day length cues. Birds also migrate from areas of low or decreasing resources to areas of high or increasing resources, most commonly food or nesting locations. Birds that nest in theNorthern Hemisphere tend to migrate north in the spring due to the increase in insect population, budding plants and the abundance of nesting locations. During the winter birds will migrate south to not only escape the cold, but find a sustainable food source.[19]
Some plants will bloom and attempt to reproduce when they sense days getting shorter. If they cannotfertilize before the seasons change and they die then they do not pass on their genes. Their ability to recognize a change in abiotic factors allow them to ensure reproduction.[20]
Trans-organismic communication is when organisms of differentspecies interact. In biology the relationships formed between different species is known assymbiosis. These relationships come in two main forms -mutualistic andparasitic. Mutualistic relationships are when both species benefit from their interactions. For example,pilot fish gather aroundsharks,rays, andsea turtles to eat various parasites from the surface of the larger organism. The fish obtain food from following the sharks, and the sharks receive a cleaning in return.[21]
Parasitic relationships are where one organism benefits off of the other organism at a cost. For example, in order formistletoe to grow it must leach water and nutrients from a tree or shrub.
Communication between species is not limited to securing sustenance. Many flowers rely onbees to spread theirpollen and facilitate floral reproduction. To allow this, many flowers evolved bright, attractivepetals and sweetnectar to attract bees. In a 2010 study, researchers at theUniversity of Buenos Aires examined a possible relationship betweenfluorescence and attraction. The study concluded thatreflected light was much more important inpollinator attraction than fluorescence.[22]
Communicating with other species allows organisms to form relationships that are advantageous in survival, and all of these relationships are all based on some form of trans-organismic communication.
Inter-organismic communication is communication between organisms of the same species like bacteria[23] (conspecifics). Inter-organismic communication includes human speech, which is key to maintainingsocial structures.
Dolphins communicate with one another in a number of ways by creating sounds, making physical contact with one another and through the use ofbody language. Dolphins communicate vocally through clicking sounds and pitches of whistling specific to only one individual.[24] The whistling helps communicate the individual's location to other dolphins. For example, if a mother loses sight of her offspring, or when two familiar individuals cannot find each other, their individual pitches help navigate back into a group. Body language can be used to indicate numerous things such as a nearby predator, to indicate to others that food has been found, and to demonstrate their level of attractiveness in order to find a mating partner, and even more.[25]
However,mammals such as dolphins and humans are not alone communicating within their own species.Peacocks can fan their feathers in order to communicate aterritorial warning. Bees can tell other bees when they have found nectar byperforming a dance when they return to the hive. Karl von Frisch received the Nobel prize for deciphering bee communication in 1973.[26]Deer may flick their tails to warn others in their trail that danger is approaching.[27]
Sexual communication is the use of biocommunication signals to facilitate sexual interaction. Sexual communication appears to have three different aspects.[28] (1) First, signals are employed to facilitate sexual interaction between individuals. (2) Second, signals are used to facilitateoutbreeding and reduceinbreeding. (3) Third, signals are used to facilitatesexual selection among potential mates. It was proposed[28] that these three aspects of sexual communication respectively promote therepair of DNA damage in thegenomes passed on to progeny, the masking ofmutations in the genomes of progeny, and selection for geneticfitness in a mating partner. Examples of sexual communication have been described in bacteria,fungi,[29]protozoa,insects,plants andvertebrates.[28]
Intra-organismic communication is not solely the passage of information within an organism, but also concrete interaction between and withincells of an organism, mediated by signs. This could be on a cellular andmolecular level. An organism's ability to interpret its own biotic information is extremely important. If the organism is injured, falls ill, or must respond to danger, it needs to be able to process thatphysiological information and adjust its behavior.
For example, when the human body starts to overheat, specializedglands releasesweat, which absorbs the heat and thenevaporates.
This communication is imperative to survival in many species including plant life. Plants lack acentral nervous system so they rely on a decentralized system of chemical messengers. This allows them to grow in response to factors such as wind, light andplant architecture. Using these chemical messengers, they can react to the environment and assess the best growth pattern.[30] Essentially, plants grow to optimize theirmetabolic efficiency.
Humans also rely on chemical messengers for survival.Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is ahormone that is secreted during times of great stress. It binds toreceptors on the surface of cells and activates a pathway that alters the structure ofglucose. This causes a rapid increase inblood sugar. Adrenaline also activates the central nervous system increasingheart rate andbreathing rate. This prepares themuscles for the body's naturalfight-or-flight response.[31]
Organisms rely on many different means of intra-organismic communication. Whether it is throughneural connections or chemical messengers (including hormones), intra-organismic biocommunicationevolved to respond to threats, maintainhomeostasis and ensure self preservation.
Subhash Kak'shierarchy of language as biocommunications positions communication on a gradient of three levels of complexity: associative, re-organizational, and quantum (what does quantum mean?). Most primitive is the associative language that is simple response-signal communication, such as insect pheromone trails or bird alarm calls not requiring cognitive flexibility. Re-organizational language is the more advanced development that allows the communication of situation-dependent information—such as the honeybee dance that tells food locations or the primate calls that change based on situation-dependent variables—demonstrating higher adaptability and potential structure of the syntax. Quantum language is the most advanced and speculative and is associated with abstract, potentially quantum-based (?) communication with the complexity of human language to communicate abstract concepts and emotion the best example, but it is not described as to how it would apply to animals other than humans. In contrast to biological communication quantum language concepts are not applied to sign-mediated interactions in plants, fungi, protozoa or bacteria. The hierarchy suggests the complexity of communication is evolving, although its quantum features and relationship to formal theories of language such as theChomsky hierarchy is controversial with scientists.[32][33][34]
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