Fission, in biology, is the division of a single entity into two or more parts and the regeneration of those parts to separate entities resembling the original. The object experiencing fission is usually acell, but the term may also refer to howorganisms, bodies,populations, orspecies split into discrete parts.[1][2][3] The fission may bebinary fission, in which a single organism produces two parts, ormultiple fission, in which a single entity produces multiple parts.
Schematic diagram of cellular growth (elongation) and binary fission of bacilli. Blue and red lines indicate old and newly generated bacterial cell wall, respectively. (1) growth at the centre of the bacterial body. e.g.Bacillus subtilis,E. coli, and others. (2) apical growth. e.g.Corynebacterium diphtheriae. This isbacterial proliferation.
The single DNA molecule first replicates, then attaches each copy to a different part of the cell membrane. When the cell begins to pull apart, the replicated and originalchromosomes are separated. The consequence of this asexual method of reproduction is that all the cells are genetically identical, meaning that they have the same genetic material (barring randommutations). Unlike the processes ofmitosis andmeiosis used by eukaryotic cells, binary fission takes place without the formation of aspindle apparatus on the cell.[citation needed] Like in mitosis (and unlike in meiosis), the parental identity is not lost.
FtsZ is homologous toβ-tubulin, the building block of the microtubule cytoskeleton used during mitosis in eukaryotes.[5] FtsZ is thought to be the first protein to localize to the site of future division in bacteria, and it assembles into a Z ring, anchored by FtsZ-binding proteins and defines the division plane between the two daughter cells.[6][5]MinC andMinD function together as division inhibitors, blocking formation of the FtsZ ring.MinE stops the MinCD activity midcell, allowing FtsZ to take over for binary fission.[7]
More specifically, the following steps occur:
The bacterium before binary fission is when the DNA is tightly coiled.
The DNA of the bacterium has uncoiled and duplicated.
The DNA is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it increases the size to prepare for splitting.
The growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium (triggered byFtsZ polymerization and "Z-ring" formation)[8]
The new cell wall (septum) fully develops, resulting in the complete split of the bacterium.
The new daughter cells have tightly coiled DNA rods,ribosomes, andplasmids; these are now brand-new organisms.
Studies of bacteria made to not produce a cell wall, calledL-form bacteria, indicate that FtsZ requires acell wall to work. Little is known about how bacteria that naturally don't grow a cell wall divide, but it is thought to resemble the L-form'sbudding-like division process of extrusion and separation.[9][10]
Binary fission is generally rapid, though its speed varies between species. ForE. coli, cells typically divide about every 20 minutes at 37 °C.[11] Because the new cells will, in turn, undergo binary fission on their own, the time binary fission requires is also the time the bacterial culture requires to double in the number of cells it contains. This time period can, therefore, be referred to as thedoubling time. Some species other thanE. coli may have faster or slower doubling times: some strains ofMycobacterium tuberculosis may have doubling times of nearly 100 hours.[12] Bacterial growth is limited by factors including nutrient availability and available space, so binary fission occurs at much lower rates in bacterial cultures once they enter thestationary phase of growth.
Thermoproteota (formerlyCrenarchaeota) possess neither a cell wall nor the FtsZ mechanism. They use a primitive version of the eukaryoticESCRT-III system (also known asCdv) to manipulate the membrane into separating, specifically by coming into the middle of the two soon-to-be daughter cells.[13][10]Euryarchaeota use FtsZ like bacteria do.[5][14]
Some organelles in eukaryotic cells reproduce using binary fission.Mitochondrial fission occurs frequently within the cell, even when the cell is not actively undergoing mitosis, and is necessary to regulate the cell'smetabolism.[15] Allchloroplasts and somemitochondria (not in animals), both organelles derived fromendosymbiosis of bacteria, also use FtsZ in a bacteria-like fashion.[5][16]
Binary fission in organisms can occur in four ways:irregular,longitudinal,transverse, oroblique. For example:
Irregular: In this fission,cytokinesis may take place along any plane but it is always perpendicular to the plane ofkaryokinesis (nuclear division). e.g.Amoeba.
Longitudinal: Here cytokinesis takes place along the longitudinal axis. e.g. inflagellates likeEuglena.
Transverse: Here cytokinesis takes place along the transverse axis. e.g. inciliateprotozoans likeParamecium.
Oblique: In this type of binary fission, cytokinesis occurs obliquely. ExampleCeratium.
Binary fission means "division into two". It is the simplest and most common method of asexual reproduction.
Multiple fission at the cellular level occurs in manyprotists, e.g.sporozoans andalgae. Thenucleus of the parent cell divides several times byamitosis, producing several nuclei. The cytoplasm then separates, creating multiple daughter cells.[17][18][19]
Some parasitic, single-celled organisms undergo a multiple fission-like process to produce numerous daughter cells from a single parent cell. Isolates of the human parasiteBlastocystis hominis were observed to begin such a process within 4 to 6 days.[20] Cells of the fish parasiteTrypanosoma borreli have also been observed participating in both binary and multiple fission.[21]
In theapicomplexans, a phylum of parasitic protists, multiple fission, orschizogony, is manifested either asmerogony,sporogony, orgametogony. Merogony results inmerozoites, which are multiple daughter cells that originate within the same cell membrane;[22][23] sporogony results insporozoites, and gametogony results in microgametes.
Green algae can divide into more than two daughter cells. The exact number of daughter cells depends on the species of algae and is an effect of temperature and light.[24]
Most species of bacteria primarily undergo binary reproduction. Some species and groups of bacteria may undergo multiple fission as well, sometimes beginning or ending with the production ofspores.[25] The speciesMetabacterium polyspora, asymbiont ofguinea pigs, has been found to produce multipleendospores in each division.[26] Some species ofcyanobacteria have also been found to reproduce through multiple fission.[27]
Some protozoans reproduce by yet another mechanism of fission calledplasmotomy. In this type of fission, amultinucleate adult parent undergoes cytokinesis to form twomultinucleate (orcoenocytic) daughter cells. The daughter cells so produced undergo further mitosis.
Fragmentation in multicellular or colonial organisms is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning, where an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones of the original organism. Inechinoderms, this method of reproduction is usually known asfissiparity.[28]
Any splitting of a single population of individuals into discrete parts may be considered fission. A population may undergo fission process for a variety of reasons, including migration or geographic isolation. Since the fission leads to genetic variance in the newly isolated, smaller populations, population fission is a precursor tospeciation.[29][30]
^Samson RY, Bell SD (November 2009). "Ancient ESCRTs and the evolution of binary fission".Trends in Microbiology.17 (11):507–13.doi:10.1016/j.tim.2009.08.003.PMID19783442.
^Suresh K, Howe J, Ng GC, Ho LC, Ramachandran NP, Loh AK, et al. (1994). "A multiple fission-like mode of asexual reproduction in Blastocystis hominis".Parasitology Research.80 (6):523–7.doi:10.1007/BF00932701.PMID7809004.S2CID20368420.
^Pecková H, Lom J (1990). "Growth, morphology and division of flagellates of the genus Trypanoplasma (Protozoa, Kinetoplastida) in vitro".Parasitology Research.76 (7):553–8.doi:10.1007/BF00932559.PMID2217113.S2CID23222953.
