^The high representative is an international civilian overseer of theDayton Agreement with authority to dismiss elected and non-elected officials and enact legislation.
Bosnia and Herzegovina[a] (Bosnian: Bosna i Hercegovina, Босна и Херцеговина;Croatian: Bosna i Hercegovina;Serbian: Bosna i Hercegovina, Босна и Херцеговина), sometimes known asBosnia-Herzegovina and informally asBosnia, is a country inSoutheast Europe. Situated on theBalkan Peninsula, it bordersSerbia to the east,Montenegro to the southeast, andCroatia to the north and southwest. In the south it has a 20-kilometre-long (12-mile) coast on theAdriatic Sea.Bosnia has a moderatecontinental climate with hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In the central and eastern regions, the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and in the northeast it is predominantly flat.Herzegovina, the smaller, southern region, has aMediterranean climate and is mostly mountainous.Sarajevo is the capital and the largest city.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is adeveloping country. Its economy is dominated by industry and agriculture, followed by tourism and the service sector. Tourism has increased significantly in recent years.[13][14] The country has a social-security and universal-healthcare system, and primary and secondary education is free.Bosnia and Herzegovina is an EU candidate country and has also been a candidate forNATO membership since April 2010.[15]
Etymology
The first preserved widely acknowledged mention of a form of the name "Bosnia" is inDe Administrando Imperio, a politico-geographical handbook written by theByzantine emperorConstantine VII in the mid-10th century (between 948 and 952) describing the "small land" (χωρίον) inGreek of "Bosona"(Βοσώνα).[16]
The name of the land is believed to derive from the name of the riverBosna that courses through the Bosnian heartland. According tophilologist Anton Mayer, the nameBosna could derive fromIllyrian *"Bass-an-as", which in turn could derive from the Proto-Indo-European rootbʰegʷ-, meaning "the running water".[17] According to the English medievalistWilliam Miller, the Slavic settlers in Bosnia "adapted the Latin designation ... Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna and themselvesBosniaks".[18]
The nameHerzegovina means "herzog's [land]", and "herzog" derives from the German word for "duke".[17] It originates from the title of a 15th-century Bosnian magnate,Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, who was "Herceg [Herzog] of Hum and the Coast" (1448).[19] Hum (formerly calledZachlumia) was an early medieval principality that had been conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. When the Ottomans took over administration of the region, they called it theSanjak of Herzegovina (Hersek). It was included within theBosnia Eyalet until the formation of the short-livedHerzegovina Eyalet in the 1830s, which reemerged in the 1850s, after which the administrative region became commonly known asBosnia and Herzegovina.[20]
From the 8th century BCE, Illyrian tribes evolved into kingdoms. The earliest recorded kingdom inIllyria was the Enchele in the 8th century BCE. The Autariatae under Pleurias (337 BCE) were considered to have been a kingdom. The Kingdom of theArdiaei (originally a tribe from theNeretva valley region) began at 230 BCE and ended at 167 BCE. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those ofBardylis of the Dardani and ofAgron of the Ardiaei who created the last and best-known Illyrian kingdom. Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well.
From the 7th century BCE, bronze was replaced by iron, after which only jewelry and art objects were still made out of bronze. Illyrian tribes, under the influence ofHallstatt cultures to the north, formed regional centers that were slightly different. Parts of Central Bosnia were inhabited by theDaesitiates tribe, most commonly associated with theCentral Bosnian cultural group. The Iron AgeGlasinac-Mati culture is associated with theAutariatae tribe.
A very important role in their life was the cult of the dead, which is seen in their careful burials and burial ceremonies, as well as the richness of their burial sites. In northern parts, there was a long tradition of cremation and burial in shallow graves, while in the south the dead were buried in large stone or earthtumuli (natively calledgromile) that in Herzegovina were reaching monumental sizes, more than 50 m wide and 5 m high.Japodian tribes had an affinity to decoration (heavy, oversized necklaces out of yellow, blue or white glass paste, and large bronzefibulas, as well as spiral bracelets, diadems and helmets out of bronze foil).
In the 4th century BCE, the first invasion ofCelts is recorded. They brought the technique of thepottery wheel, new types of fibulas and different bronze and iron belts. They only passed on their way to Greece, so their influence in Bosnia and Herzegovina is negligible. Celtic migrations displaced manyIllyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages.
Mogorjelo, an ancient Roman suburban Villa Rustica from the 4th century, nearČapljina
In theNeretva Delta in the south, there were importantHellenistic influences of the IllyrianDaors tribe. Their capital wasDaorson in Ošanići nearStolac. Daorson, in the 4th century BCE, was surrounded bymegalithic, 5 m high stonewalls (as large as those ofMycenae in Greece), composed of large trapezoid stone blocks. Daors made unique bronze coins and sculptures.
Conflict between the Illyrians andRomans started in 229 BCE, but Rome did not complete its annexation of the region until AD 9. It was precisely in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina that Rome fought one of the most difficult battles in its history since thePunic Wars, as described by the Roman historianSuetonius.[23] This was the Roman campaign againstIllyricum, known asBellum Batonianum.[24] The conflict arose after an attempt to recruit Illyrians, and a revolt spanned for four years (6–9 AD), after which they were subdued.[25] In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from the entireRoman Empire settled among the Illyrians, and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region.[17]
Following the split of the Empire between 337 and 395 AD, Dalmatia and Pannonia became parts of theWestern Roman Empire. The region was conquered by theOstrogoths in 455 AD. It subsequently changed hands between theAlans and theHuns. By the 6th century, EmperorJustinian I had reconquered the area for theByzantine Empire. Slavs overwhelmed the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. Illyrian cultural traits were adopted by the South Slavs, as evidenced in certain customs and traditions, placenames, etc.[26]
TheEarly Slavs raided the Western Balkans, including Bosnia, in the 6th and early 7th century (amid theMigration Period), and were composed of small tribal units drawn from a single Slavic confederation known to the Byzantines as theSclaveni (whilst the relatedAntes, roughly speaking, colonized the eastern portions of the Balkans).[27][28]Tribes recorded by the ethnonyms of "Serb" and "Croat" are described as a second, later, migration of different people during the second quarter of the 7th century who could not have been particularly numerous;[27][29][30] these early "Serb" and "Croat" tribes, whose exact identity is subject to scholarly debate,[30] came to predominate over the Slavs in the neighbouring regions. According to Noel Malcolm, the tribal Croats "settled in an area roughly corresponding to modern Croatia, and probably also including most of Bosnia proper, apart from the eastern strip of the Drina valley" while the tribal Serbs settled an area "corresponding to modern south-western Serbia (later known asRaška), and gradually extended their rule into the territories ofDuklja andHum".[31]John Van Antwerp Fine Jr., on the other hand, describes the settling of the tribal Croats to involve Croatia, Dalmatia and Western Bosnia, with the rest of Bosnia seemingly being a territory between early Serb and Croat rule.[32]
Bosnia is also believed to be first mentionedas a land (horion Bosona) in Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus'De Administrando Imperio in the mid 10th century, at the end of a chapter entitledOf the Serbs and the country in which they now dwell.[33] This has been scholarly interpreted in several ways and used especially by the Serb national ideologists to prove Bosnia as originally a "Serb" land.[33] Other scholars have asserted the inclusion of Bosnia in the chapter to merely be the result of Serbian Grand DukeČaslav's temporary rule over Bosnia at the time, while also pointing out Porphyrogenitus does not say anywhere explicitly that Bosnia is a "Serb land".[34] In fact, the very translation of the critical sentence where the wordBosona (Bosnia) appears is subject to varying interpretation.[33] In time, Bosnia formed a unit under its ownruler, who called himself Bosnian.[35] Bosnia, along with other territories, became part ofDuklja in the 11th century, although it retained its own nobility and institutions.[36]
In theHigh Middle Ages, political circumstance led to the area being contested between theKingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the early 12th century, Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as theBanate of Bosnia (under the rule of localbans).[17][37] The first Bosnian ban known by name wasBan Borić.[38] The second wasBan Kulin, whose rule marked the start of a controversy involving theBosnian Church – considered heretical by theRoman Catholic Church. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254. During this time, the population was calledDobriBošnjani ("Good Bosnians").[39][40] The names Serb and Croat, though occasionally appearing in peripheral areas, were not used in Bosnia proper.[41]
Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by a power struggle between theŠubić andKotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, whenStephen II Kotromanić becameBan. By the time of his death in 1353, he was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his ambitious nephewTvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. By the year 1377, Bosnia was elevated into a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko as the firstBosnian King in Mile nearVisoko in the Bosnian heartland.[42][43][44]
Following his death in 1391, however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. TheOttoman Empire had started itsconquest of Europe and posed a major threat to theBalkans throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463 after its conquest by the Ottoman Empire.[45]
There was a general awareness in medieval Bosnia, at least amongst the nobles, that they shared a joint state with Serbia and that they belonged to the same ethnic group. That awareness diminished over time, due to differences in political and social development, but it was kept in Herzegovina and parts of Bosnia which were a part of Serbian state.[46]
TheOttoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in the country's history and introduced drastic changes in the political and cultural landscape. The Ottomans incorporated Bosnia as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity.[47] Within Bosnia, the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation.[17]
Following Ottoman occupation, there was a steady flow of people out of Bosnia and a large number of abandoned villages in Bosnia are mentioned in the Ottoman registers,[48] while those who stayed eventually becameMuslims. Many Catholics in Bosnia fled to neighboring Catholic lands in the early Ottoman occupation.[49] The evidence indicates that the early Muslim conversions in Ottoman Bosnia in the 15th–16th century were among the locals who stayed rather than mass Muslim settlements from outside Bosnia.[48] In Herzegovina, manyOrthodox people had also embraced Islam.[48] By the late 16th and early 17th century, Muslims are considered to have become an absolute majority in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Albanian Catholic priestPjetër Mazreku reported in 1624 that there were 450,000 Muslims, 150,000 Catholics and 75,000 Eastern Orthodox in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[48]
There was a lack ofOrthodox Church activity in Bosnia proper in the pre-Ottoman period.[50] An Orthodox Christian population in Bosnia was introduced as a direct result of Ottoman policy.[51] From the 15th century and onwards, Orthodox Christians (OrthodoxVlachs and non-Vlach Orthodox Serbs) from Serbia and other regions settled in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[52] Favored by the Ottomans over the Catholics, many Orthodox churches were allowed to be built in Bosnia by the Ottomans.[53][51] Quite a few Vlachs also became Islamized in Bosnia, and some (mainly in Croatia) became Catholics.[54]
The four centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, forced and economic migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest of the ethno-religious groups due to a lack of strong Christian church organizations and continuous rivalry between the Orthodox and Catholic churches, while the indigenousBosnian Church disappeared altogether (ostensibly by conversion of its members to Islam). The Ottomans referred to them askristianlar while the Orthodox and Catholics were calledgebir orkafir, meaning "unbeliever".[55] The BosnianFranciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decrees and in accordance and the full extent of Ottoman laws; however, in effect, these often merely affected arbitrary rule and behavior of powerful local elite.[17]
As the Ottoman Empire continued its rule in the Balkans (Rumelia), Bosnia was somewhat relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province and experienced a period of general welfare. A number of cities, such asSarajevo andMostar, were established and grew into regional centers of trade and urban culture and were then visited by Ottoman travelerEvliya Çelebi in 1648. Within these cities, various Ottoman Sultans financed the construction of many works ofBosnian architecture such as the country's first library in Sarajevo,madrassas, a school ofSufi philosophy, and a clock tower (Sahat Kula), bridges such as theStari Most, theEmperor's Mosque and theGazi Husrev-beg Mosque.[56]
However, by the late 17th century the Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the end of theGreat Turkish War with thetreaty of Karlowitz in 1699 again made Bosnia the Empire's westernmost province. The 18th century was marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbreaks of plague.[59]The Porte's efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with distrust growing to hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposedTanzimat reforms. This, combined with frustrations over territorial, political concessions in the north-east, and the plight ofSlavicMuslim refugees arriving from theSanjak of Smederevo intoBosnia Eyalet, culminated in a partially unsuccessful revolt byHusein Gradaščević, who endorsed a Bosnia Eyalet autonomous from the authoritarian rule of the Ottoman SultanMahmud II, who persecuted, executed and abolished theJanissaries and reduced the role of autonomousPashas in Rumelia. Mahmud II sent hisGrand vizier to subdue Bosnia Eyalet and succeeded only with the reluctant assistance ofAli Pasha Rizvanbegović.[58] Related rebellions were extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate.
New nationalist movements appeared in Bosnia by the middle of the 19th century. Shortly after Serbia's breakaway from the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, Serbian and Croatian nationalism rose up in Bosnia, and such nationalists made irredentist claims to Bosnia's territory. This trend continued to grow in the rest of the 19th and 20th centuries.[60]
Agrarian unrest eventually sparked theHerzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, a situation that led to theCongress of Berlin and theTreaty of Berlin in 1878.[17]
At the Congress ofBerlin in 1878, theAustro-Hungarian Foreign MinisterGyula Andrássy obtained the occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and he also obtained the right to station garrisons in theSanjak of Novi Pazar, which would remain underOttoman administration until 1908, when the Austro-Hungarian troops withdrew from the Sanjak.
Although Austro-Hungarian officials quickly came to an agreement with the Bosnians, tensions remained and a mass emigration of Bosnians occurred.[17] However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms they intended would make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model" colony.
Habsburg rule had several key concerns in Bosnia. It tried to dissipate the South Slav nationalism by disputing the earlier Serb and Croat claims to Bosnia and encouraging identification of Bosnian orBosniak identity.[61] Habsburg rule also tried to provide for modernisation by codifying laws, introducing new political institutions, establishing and expanding industries.[62]
People of Sarajevo in 1883
Austria–Hungary began to plan the annexation of Bosnia, but due to international disputes the issue was not resolved until theannexation crisis of 1908.[63] Several external matters affected the status of Bosnia and its relationship with Austria–Hungary.A bloody coup occurred in Serbia in 1903, which brought a radical anti-Austrian government into power inBelgrade.[64] Then in 1908, the revolt in the Ottoman Empire raised concerns that theIstanbul government might seek the outright return of Bosnia and Herzegovina. These factors caused the Austro-Hungarian government to seek a permanent resolution of the Bosnian question sooner, rather than later.
Taking advantage of the turmoil in the Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian diplomacy tried to obtain provisional Russian approval for changes over the status of Bosnia and Herzegovina and published the annexation proclamation on 6 October 1908.[65] Despite international objections to the Austro-Hungarian annexation, Russians and their client state, Serbia, were compelled to accept the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in March 1909.
In 1910, Habsburg EmperorFranz Joseph proclaimed the first constitution in Bosnia, which led to relaxation of earlier laws, elections and formation of theBosnian parliament and growth of new political life.[66]
The Austro-Hungarian authorities established an auxiliary militia known as theSchutzkorps with a moot role in the empire's policy ofanti-Serb repression.[68] Schutzkorps, predominantly recruited among the Bosnian Muslim population, were tasked with hunting down rebel Serbs (theChetniks andKomitadji)[69] and became known for their persecution ofSerbs particularly in Serb populated areas of eastern Bosnia, where they partly retaliated against Serbian Chetniks who in fall 1914 had carried out attacks against the Muslim population in the area.[70][71] The proceedings of the Austro-Hungarian authorities led to around 5,500 citizens of Serb ethnicity in Bosnia and Herzegovina being arrested, and between 700 and 2,200 died in prison while 460 were executed.[69] Around 5,200 Serb families were forcibly expelled from Bosnia and Herzegovina.[69]
"Keep/Protect Yugoslavia" (Čuvajte Jugoslaviju), a variant of the alleged last words ofKing Alexander I, in an illustration of Yugoslav peoples dancing thekolo
Following World War I, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined the South SlavKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia and Herzegovina at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest overproperty redistribution and the formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions.[57]
The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia and Herzegovina's majorethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere.[17] The political reforms brought about in the newly established Yugoslavian kingdom saw few benefits for the Bosnian Muslims; according to the 1910 final census of land ownership and population according to religious affiliation conducted in Austria-Hungary, Muslims owned 91.1%, Orthodox Serbs owned 6.0%, Croat Catholics owned 2.6% and others, 0.3% of the property. Following the reforms, Bosnian Muslims were dispossessed of a total of 1,175,305 hectares of agricultural and forest land.[72]
Although the initial split of the country into 33oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians, such asMehmed Spaho, ensured the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole.[17]
The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions intobanates orbanovinas that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity.[17] Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration.
The railway bridge over theNeretva River inJablanica, twice destroyed during the 1943Case White offensive
Once the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by German forces inWorld War II, all of Bosnia and Herzegovina was ceded to the Nazi puppet regime, theIndependent State of Croatia (NDH) led by theUstaše. The NDH leaders embarked on acampaign of extermination of Serbs, Jews,Romani as well as dissident Croats, and, later,Josip Broz Tito'sPartisans by setting up a number ofdeath camps.[73] The regime systematically and brutally massacred Serbs in villages in the countryside, using a variety of tools.[74] The scale of the violence meant that approximately every sixth Serb living in Bosnia and Herzegovina was the victim of a massacre and virtually every Serb had a family member that was killed in the war, mostly by the Ustaše. The experience had a profound impact in the collective memory of Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.[75] An estimated 209,000 Serbs or 16.9% of its Bosnia population were killed on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war.[76]
The Ustaše recognized both Catholicism and Islam as the national religions, but held the positionEastern Orthodox Church, as a symbol of Serb identity, was their greatest foe.[77] Although Croats were by far the largest ethnic group to constitute the Ustaše, the Vice President of the NDH and leader of the Yugoslav Muslim OrganizationDžafer Kulenović was a Muslim, and Muslims in total constituted nearly 12% of the Ustaše military and civil service authority.[78]
Many Serbs themselves took up arms and joined the Chetniks, a Serb nationalist movement with the aim of establishing an ethnically homogeneous 'Greater Serbian' state[79] within the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The Chetniks, in turn, pursued agenocidal campaign against ethnic Muslims and Croats, as well as persecuting a large number ofcommunist Serbs and other Communist sympathizers, with the Muslim populations of Bosnia, Herzegovina andSandžak being a primary target.[80] Once captured, Muslim villagers were systematically massacred by the Chetniks.[81] Of the 75,000 Muslims who died in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war,[82] approximately 30,000 (mostly civilians) were killed by the Chetniks.[83] Massacres against Croats were smaller in scale but similar in action.[84] Between 64,000 and 79,000 Bosnian Croats were killed between April 1941 to May 1945.[82] Of these, about 18,000 were killed by the Chetniks.[83]
A percentage of Muslims served in NaziWaffen-SS units.[85] These units were responsible for massacres of Serbs in northwest and eastern Bosnia, most notably inVlasenica.[86] On 12 October 1941, a group of 108 prominent Sarajevan Muslims signed theResolution of Sarajevo Muslims by which they condemned the persecution of Serbs organized by the Ustaše, made distinction between Muslims who participated in such persecutions and the Muslim population as a whole, presented information about the persecutions of Muslims by Serbs, and requested security for all citizens of the country, regardless of their identity.[87]
Starting in 1941, Yugoslav communists under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the Partisans, who fought against bothAxis and Chetnik forces. On 29 November 1943, theAnti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) with Tito at its helm held a founding conference inJajce where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Habsburg borders.[88] During the entire course ofWorld War II in Yugoslavia, 64.1% of all Bosnian Partisans were Serbs, 23% were Muslims and 8.8% Croats.[89]
Military success eventually prompted theAllies to support the Partisans, resulting in the successfulMaclean Mission, but Tito declined their offer to help and relied on his own forces instead. All the major military offensives by the antifascist movement of Yugoslavia against Nazis and their local supporters were conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina and its peoples bore the brunt of the fighting. More than 300,000 people died in Bosnia and Herzegovina in World War II, or more than 10% of the population.[90] At the end of the war, the establishment of theSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, with theconstitution of 1946, officially made Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state.[17]
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1945–1992)
Due to its central geographic position within the Yugoslavian federation, post-war Bosnia was selected as a base for the development of the military defense industry. This contributed to a large concentration of arms and military personnel in Bosnia; a significant factor inthe war that followed the break-up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s.[17] However, Bosnia's existence within Yugoslavia, for the large part, was relatively peaceful and very prosperous, with high employment, a strong industrial and export oriented economy, a good education system and social and medical security for every citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Several international corporations operated in Bosnia—Volkswagen as part of TAS (car factory in Sarajevo, from 1972),Coca-Cola (from 1975), SKF Sweden (from 1967),Marlboro (a tobacco factory in Sarajevo), andHoliday Inn hotels. Sarajevo was the site of the1984 Winter Olympics.
During the 1950s and 1960s, Bosnia was a political backwater of Yugoslavia. In the 1970s, a strong Bosnian political elite arose, fueled in part by Tito's leadership in theNon-Aligned Movement and Bosnians serving in Yugoslavia's diplomatic corps. While working within the Socialist system, politicians such asDžemal Bijedić,Branko Mikulić andHamdija Pozderac reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina.[91] Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito's death in 1980, and are today considered some of the early steps towardsBosnian independence. However, the republic did not escape the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time. With the fall of communism and the start of thebreakup of Yugoslavia, doctrine of tolerance began to lose its potency, creating an opportunity for nationalist elements in the society to spread their influence.[92]
On 18 November 1990,multi-party parliamentary elections were held throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina. A second round followed on 25 November, resulting in anational assembly where communist power was replaced by a coalition of three ethnically based parties.[93] FollowingSlovenia andCroatia's declarations of independence from Yugoslavia, a significant split developed among the residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina on the issue of whether to remain within Yugoslavia (overwhelmingly favored by Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored byMuslims and Croats).[94]
The Serb members of parliament, consisting mainly of theSerb Democratic Party members, abandoned the central parliament in Sarajevo, and formed theAssembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 24 October 1991, which marked the end of the three-ethnic coalition that governed after the elections in 1990. This Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in part of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992. It was renamedRepublika Srpska in August 1992. On 18 November 1991, the party branch in Bosnia and Herzegovina of the ruling party in the Republic of Croatia, theCroatian Democratic Union (HDZ), proclaimed the existence of theCroatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia in a separate part of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina with theCroatian Defence Council (HVO) as its military branch.[95] It went unrecognized by theGovernment of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which declared it illegal.[96][97]
A declaration of the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 15 October 1991 was followed by areferendum for independence on 29 February and 1 March 1992, which was boycotted by the great majority of Serbs. The turnout in the independence referendum was 63.4 per cent and 99.7 per cent of voters voted for independence.[98] Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence on 3 March 1992 and received international recognition the following month on 6 April 1992.[99] TheRepublic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was admitted as a member state of theUnited Nations on 22 May 1992.[100] Serbian leaderSlobodan Milošević and Croatian leaderFranjo Tuđman are believed to have agreed on apartition of Bosnia and Herzegovina in March 1991, with the aim of establishingGreater Serbia andGreater Croatia.[101]
Following Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of independence, Bosnian Serb militias mobilized in different parts of the country. Government forces were poorly equipped and unprepared for the war.[102] International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina increased diplomatic pressure for theYugoslav People's Army (JNA) to withdraw from the republic's territory, which they officially did in June 1992. The Bosnian Serb members of the JNA simply changed insignia, formed theArmy of Republika Srpska (VRS), and continued fighting. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers and various paramilitary forces from Serbia, and receiving extensive humanitarian, logistical and financial support from theFederal Republic of Yugoslavia,Republika Srpska's offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control.[17] The Bosnian Serb advance was accompanied by theethnic cleansing of Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats from VRS-controlled areas. Dozens of concentration camps were established in which inmates were subjected to violence and abuse, including rape.[103] The ethnic cleansing culminated in theSrebrenica massacre of more than 8,000 Bosniak men and boys in July 1995, which was ruled to have been agenocide by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY).[104] Bosniak and Bosnian Croat forces also committed war crimes against civilians from different ethnic groups, though on a smaller scale.[105][106][107][108] Most of the Bosniak and Croat atrocities were committed during theCroat–Bosniak War, a sub-conflict of the Bosnian War that pitted theArmy of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) against the HVO. The Bosniak-Croat conflict ended in March 1994, with the signing of theWashington Agreement, leading to the creation of a joint Bosniak-CroatFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which amalgamated HVO-held territory with that held by theArmy of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH).[109]
On 4 February 2014, theprotests against theGovernment of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, one of the country's two entities, dubbed the Bosnian Spring, the name being taken from theArab Spring, began in the northern town ofTuzla. Workers from several factories that had been privatised and gone bankrupt assembled to demand action over jobs, unpaid salaries and pensions.[110] Soon protests spread to the rest of the Federation, with violent clashes reported in close to 20 towns, the biggest of which wereSarajevo,Zenica,Mostar,Bihać,Brčko and Tuzla.[111] The Bosnian news media reported that hundreds of people had been injured during the protests, including dozens of police officers, with bursts of violence in Sarajevo, in the northern city of Tuzla, in Mostar in the south, and in Zenica in central Bosnia. The same level of unrest or activism did not occur in Republika Srpska, but hundreds of people also gathered in support of protests in the city ofBanja Luka against its separate government.[112][113][114]
The protests marked the largest outbreak of public anger over high unemployment and two decades of political inertia in the country since the end of the Bosnian War in 1995.[115] According to a report made byChristian Schmidt of theOffice of High Representative in late 2021, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been experiencing intensified political and ethnic tensions, which could potentially break the country apart and slide it back into war once again.[116][117] TheEuropean Union fears this will lead to furtherBalkanization in the region.[118]
On 15 December 2022, Bosnia and Herzegovina was recognised by the European Union as a candidate country foraccession following the decision of theEuropean Council.[119]
Bosnia and Herzegovina is in the westernBalkans, borderingCroatia (932 km or 579 mi) to the north and west,Serbia (302 km or 188 mi) to the east, andMontenegro (225 km or 140 mi) to the southeast. It has a coastline about 20 kilometres (12 miles) long surrounding the town ofNeum.[120][121] It lies between latitudes42° and46° N, and longitudes15° and20° E.
The country's name comes from the two alleged regionsBosnia andHerzegovina, whose border was never defined. Historically, Bosnia's official name never included any of its many regions until the Austro-Hungarian occupation.
Overall, nearly 50% of Bosnia and Herzegovina is forested. Most forest areas are in the centre, east and west parts of Bosnia. Herzegovina has a drier Mediterranean climate, with dominantkarst topography. Northern Bosnia (Posavina) contains very fertile agricultural land along theSava river and the corresponding area is heavily farmed. This farmland is a part of the Pannonian Plain stretching into neighboring Croatia and Serbia. The country has only 20 kilometres (12 miles) of coastline,[120][123] around the town of Neum in theHerzegovina-Neretva Canton. Although the city is surrounded by Croatian peninsulas, by international law, Bosnia and Herzegovina has aright of passage to the outer sea.
TheBosna river gave its name to the country, and is the longest river fully contained within it. It stretches through central Bosnia, from its source nearSarajevo to Sava in the north.
TheDrina flows through the eastern part of Bosnia, and for the most part it forms a natural border with Serbia.
TheNeretva is the major river of Herzegovina and the only major river that flows south, into the Adriatic Sea.
As a result of theDayton Agreement, the civilian peace implementation is supervised by theHigh Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina selected by thePeace Implementation Council (PIC). The High Representative is the highest political authority in the country. The High Representative has many governmental and legislative powers, including the dismissal of elected and non-elected officials. Due to the vast powers of the High Representative overBosnian politics and essentialveto powers, the position has also been compared to that of aviceroy.[129][130][131][132]
Bosnia and Herzegovina is aliberal democracy.[clarification needed] It has several levels of political structuring, according to theDayton Agreement. The most important of these levels is the division of the country into two entities: theFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovina andRepublika Srpska. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers 51% of Bosnia and Herzegovina's total area, while Republika Srpska covers 49%. The entities, based largely on the territories held by the two warring sides at the time, were formally established by the Dayton Agreement in 1995 because of the tremendous changes in Bosnia and Herzegovina's ethnic structure. At the national level, there exists only a finite set of exclusive or joint competencies, whereas the majority of authority rests within the entities.[135]Sumantra Bose describes Bosnia and Herzegovina as a consociationalconfederation.[136]
TheBrčko District in the north of the country was created in 2000, out of land from both entities. It officially belongs to both, but is governed by neither, and functions under a decentralized system of local government. For election purposes, Brčko District voters can choose to participate in either the Federation or Republika Srpska elections. The Brčko District has been praised for maintaining a multiethnic population and a level of prosperity significantly above the national average.[137]
The third level of Bosnia and Herzegovina's political subdivision is manifested incantons. They are unique to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity, which consists of ten of them. Each has a cantonal government, which is under the law of the Federation as a whole. Some cantons are ethnically mixed and have special laws to ensure the equality of all constituent people.[138]
The fourth level of political division in Bosnia and Herzegovina are themunicipalities. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into 79 municipalities, and Republika Srpska into 64. Municipalities also have their own local government, and are typically based on the most significant city or place in their territory. As such, many municipalities have a long tradition and history with their present boundaries. Some others, however, were only created following the recent war after traditional municipalities were split by theInter-Entity Boundary Line. Each canton in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of several municipalities, which are divided into local communities.[139]
Besides entities, cantons, and municipalities, Bosnia and Herzegovina also has four "official" cities. These are:Banja Luka,Mostar,Sarajevo andEast Sarajevo. The territory and government of the cities of Banja Luka and Mostar corresponds to the municipalities of the same name, while the cities of Sarajevo and East Sarajevo officially consist of several municipalities. Cities have their own city government whose power is in between that of the municipalities and cantons (or the entity, in the case of Republika Srpska).
More recently, several central institutions have been established (such as adefense ministry, security ministry, state court,indirect taxation service and so on) in the process of transferring part of the jurisdiction from the entities to the state. The representation of the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina is by elites who represent the country's three major groups, with each having a guaranteed share of power.
TheChair of thePresidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina rotates among three members (Bosniak,Serb,Croat), each elected as the chair for an eight-month term within their four-year term as a member. The three members of the Presidency are elected directly by the people, with Federation voters voting for the Bosniak and the Croat and the Republika Srpska voters voting for the Serb.
TheChair of the Council of Ministers is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the parliamentaryHouse of Representatives. The Chair of the Council of Ministers is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade and others as appropriate.
The Parliamentary Assembly is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two houses: theHouse of Peoples and the House of Representatives. The House of Peoples has 15 delegates chosen by parliaments of the entities, two-thirds of which come from the Federation (5 Bosniaks and 5 Croats) and one-third from the Republika Srpska (5 Serbs). The House of Representatives is composed of 42 Members elected by the people under a form of proportional representation, two-thirds elected from the Federation and one-third elected from Republika Srpska.[140]
However, the highest political authority in the country is the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina, the chiefexecutive officer for the international civilian presence in the country and is selected by theEuropean Union. Since 1995, the High Representative has been able to bypass the elected parliamentary assembly, and since 1997 has been able to remove elected officials. The methods selected by the High Representative have been criticized as undemocratic.[142] International supervisionis to end when the country is deemed politically and democratically stable and self-sustaining.
The Bosnian military consists of theBosnian Ground Forces andAir Force and Air Defense.[145] The Ground Forces number 7,200 active and 5,000 reserve personnel.[146] They are armed with a mix of American, Yugoslavian, Soviet, and European-made weaponry, vehicles, and military equipment. The Air Force and Air Defense Forces have 1,500 personnel and about 62 aircraft. The Air Defense Forces operateMANPADS hand-held missiles,surface-to-air missile (SAM) batteries, anti-aircraft cannons, and radar. The Army has recently adopted remodeledMARPAT uniforms, used by Bosnian soldiers serving with theInternational Security Assistance Force (ISAF) inAfghanistan. A domestic production program is now underway to ensure that army units are equipped with the correct ammunition.[147]
Beginning in 2007, the Ministry of Defence undertook the army's first ever international assistance mission, enlisting the military to serve with ISAF peace missions to Afghanistan,Iraq and theDemocratic Republic of the Congo in 2007. Five officers, acting as officers/advisors, served in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 45 soldiers, mostly acting as base security and medical assistants, served in Afghanistan. 85 Bosnian soldiers served as base security in Iraq, occasionally conducting infantry patrols there as well. All three deployed groups have been commended by their respective international forces as well as the Ministry of Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The international assistance operations are still ongoing.[148]
The Air Force and Anti-Aircraft Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed when elements of the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and theRepublika Srpska Air Force were merged in 2006. The Air Force has seen improvements in the last few years with added funds for aircraft repairs and improved cooperation with theGround Forces as well as to the citizens of the country. The Ministry of Defence is pursuing the acquisition of new aircraft including helicopters and perhaps even fighter jets.[149]
European Union integration is one of the main political objectives of Bosnia and Herzegovina; it initiated theStabilisation and Association Process in 2007. Countries participating in the SAP have been offered the possibility to become, once they fulfill the necessary conditions, Member States of the EU.[150] Bosnia and Herzegovina has been a candidate country for EU accession since December 2022.[119] Accession talks are set to begin following the impeding of more reforms.[151]
The implementation of theDayton Agreement in 1995 has focused the efforts of policymakers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the international community, on regional stabilization in the countries-successors of theformer Yugoslavia.[152]
Within Bosnia and Herzegovina, relations with its neighbors ofCroatia,Serbia andMontenegro have been fairly stable since the signing of the Dayton Agreement. On 23 April 2010, Bosnia and Herzegovina received theMembership Action Plan fromNATO, which is the last step before full membership in the alliance. Full membership was initially expected in 2014 or 2015, depending on the progress of reforms.[153] In December 2018, NATO approved a Bosnian Membership Action Plan.[154]
Bosnia and Herzegovina is the 61st most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.[155]
According to the1991 census, Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,369,319, while the 1996 World Bank Group census showed a decrease to 3,764,425.[156] Large population migrations during theYugoslav Wars in the 1990s have caused demographic shifts in the country. Between 1991 and 2013, political disagreements made it impossible to organize a census. A census had been planned for 2011,[157] and then for 2012,[158] but was delayed until October 2013. The2013 census found a total population of 3,531,159 people,[2] a drop of approximately 20% since 1991.[159] The 2013 census figures include non-permanent Bosnian residents and for this reason are contested by Republika Srpska officials and Serb politicians (see Ethnic groups below).[160]
Bosnia and Herzegovina is home to three ethnic "constituent peoples", namelyBosniaks,Serbs andCroats, plus a number of smaller groups includingJews andRoma.[162] According to data from the 2013 census published by theAgency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosniaks constitute 50.1% of the population, Serbs 30.8%, Croats 15.5% and others 2.7%, with the remaining respondents not declaring their ethnicity or not answering.[2] The census results are contested by theRepublika Srpska statistical office and byBosnian Serb politicians.[163] The dispute over the census concerns the inclusion of non-permanent Bosnian residents in the figures, which Republika Srpska officials oppose.[160] TheEuropean Union's statistics office,Eurostat, concluded in May 2016 that the census methodology used by the Bosnian statistical agency is in line with international recommendations.[164]
Languages
Bosnia's constitution does not specify any official languages.[165][166][167] However, academics Hilary Footitt and Michael Kelly note theDayton Agreement states it[clarification needed] is "done inBosnian,Croatian, English andSerbian", and they describe this as the "de facto recognition of three official languages" at the state level. The equal status of Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian was verified by theConstitutional Court in 2000.[167] It ruled the provisions of theFederation and Republika Srpska constitutions on language were incompatible with the state constitution, since they only recognised Bosnian and Croatian (in the case of the Federation) and Serbian (in the case of Republika Srpska) as official languages at the entity level. As a result, the wording of the entity constitutions was changed and all three languages were made official in both entities.[167] The threestandard languages are fullymutually intelligible and are known collectively under the appellation ofSerbo-Croatian, despite this term not being formally recognized in the country. Use of one of the three languages has become a marker of ethnic identity.[168] Michael Kelly and Catherine Baker argue: "The three official languages of today's Bosnian state...represent the symbolic assertion of national identity over the pragmatism of mutual intelligibility".[169]
In the 2013 census, 52.86% of the population consider their mother tongue Bosnian, 30.76% Serbian, 14.6% Croatian and 1.57% another language, with 0.21% not giving an answer.[2]
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a religiously diverse country. According to the 2013 census,Muslims comprised 50.7% of the population, whileOrthodox Christians made 30.7%,Catholic Christians 15.2%, 1.2% other and 1.1%atheist oragnostic, with the remainder not declaring or not answering the question.[2] A 2012 survey found 54% of Bosnia's Muslims werenon-denominational, while 38% followedSunnism.[172]
Estimated development of real GDP per capita of Bosnia and Herzegovina, since 1952
During theBosnian War, the economy suffered €200 billion in material damages, roughly €326.38 billion in 2022 (inflation adjusted).[176][177] Bosnia and Herzegovina faces the dual-problem of rebuilding a war-torn country and introducing transitional liberal market reforms to its formerly mixed economy. One legacy of the previous era is a strong industry; under former republic presidentDžemal Bijedić andYugoslav PresidentJosip Broz Tito, metal industries were promoted in the republic, resulting in the development of a large share of Yugoslavia's plants;SR Bosnia and Herzegovina had a very strong industrial export oriented economy in the 1970s and 1980s, with large scale exports worth millions ofUS$.
For most of Bosnia's history, agriculture has been conducted on privately owned farms; Fresh food has traditionally been exported from the republic.[178]
The war in the 1990s, caused a dramatic change in the Bosnian economy.[179] GDP fell by 60% and the destruction of physical infrastructure devastated the economy.[180] With much of the production capacity unrestored, the Bosnian economy still faces considerable difficulties. Figures show GDP and per capita income increased 10% from 2003 to 2004; this and Bosnia's shrinkingnational debt being negative trends, and high unemployment 38.7% and a largetrade deficit remain cause for concern.
The national currency is the (Euro-pegged)convertible mark (KM), controlled by thecurrency board. Annual inflation is the lowest relative to other countries in the region at 1.9% in 2004.[181] The international debt was $5.1 billion (as of 31 December 2014).Real GDP growth rate was 5% for 2004 according to theCentral Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Statistical Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has displayed positive progress in the previous years, which decisively moved its place from the lowest income equality rank ofincome equality rankings fourteen out of 193 nations.[182]
According toEurostat data, Bosnia and Herzegovina's PPS GDP per capita stood at 29 per cent of the EU average in 2010.[183]
TheUnited States Embassy inSarajevo produces the Country Commercial Guide – an annual report that delivers a comprehensive look at Bosnia and Herzegovina's commercial and economic environment, using economic, political, and market analysis.
The unemployment rate in 2017 was 20.5%, butThe Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies is predicting falling unemployment rate for the next few years. In 2018, the unemployment should be 19.4% and it should further fall to 18.8% in 2019. In 2020, the unemployment rate should go down to 18.3%.[188]
On 31 December 2017, theCouncil of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina issued the report on public debt of Bosnia and Herzegovina, stating the public debt was reduced by €389.97 million, or by more than 6% when compared to 31 December 2016. By the end of 2017, public debt was €5.92 billion, which amounted to 35.6 percent of GDP.[189]
As of 31 December 2017[update], there were 32,292 registered companies in the country, which together had revenues of €33.572 billion that same year.[190]
In 2017, Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked third in the world in terms of the number of new jobs created by foreign investment, relative to the number of inhabitants.[192][193]
In 2018, Bosnia and Herzegovina exported goods worth 11.9 billion KM (€6.07 billion), which is 7.43% higher than in the same period in 2017, while imports amounted to 19.27 billion KM (€9.83 billion), which is 5.47% higher.[194]
The average price of new apartments sold in the country in the first six months of 2018 is 1,639 km (€886.31) per square metre. This represents a jump of 3.5% from the previous year.[195]
On 30 June 2018, public debt of Bosnia and Herzegovina amounted to about €6.04 billion, of which external debt is 70.56 percent, while the internal debt is 29.4 percent of total public indebtedness. The share of public debt in gross domestic product is 34.92 percent.[196]
In the first 7 months of 2018, 811,660 tourists visited the country, a 12.2% jump when compared to the first 7 months of 2017.[197] In the first 11 months of 2018, 1,378,542 tourists visited Bosnia-Herzegovina, an increase of 12.6%, and had 2,871,004 overnight hotel stays, a 13.8% increase from the previous year. Also, 71.8% of the tourists came from foreign countries.[198] In the first seven months of 2019, 906,788 tourists visited the country, an 11.7% jump from the previous year.[199]
In 2018, 99.5 percent of enterprises in Bosnia and Herzegovina used computers in their business, while 99.3 percent had internet connections, according to a survey conducted by the Bosnia and Herzegovina Statistics Agency.[201]
In 2018, Bosnia and Herzegovina received 783.4 million KM (€400.64 million) indirect foreign investment, which was equivalent to 2.3% of GDP.[202]
In 2018, the Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina made a profit of 8,430,875 km (€4,306,347).[203]
TheWorld Bank predicted that the economy would grow 3.4% in 2019.[204]
Bosnia and Herzegovina was placed 83rd on theIndex of Economic Freedom for 2019. The total rating for Bosnia and Herzegovina is 61.9. This position represents some progress relative to the 91st place in 2018. This result is below the regional level, but still above the global average, making Bosnia and Herzegovina a "moderately free" country.[205]
On 31 January 2019, total deposits in Bosnian banks were KM 21.9 billion (€11.20 billion), which represents 61.15% of nominal GDP.[206]
In the second quarter of 2019, the average price of new apartments sold in Bosnia and Herzegovina was 1,606 km (€821.47) per square metre.[207]
In the first six months of 2019, exports amounted to 5.829 billion KM (€2.98 billion), which is 0.1% less than in the same period of 2018, while imports amounted to 9.779 billion KM (€5.00 billion), which is by 4.5% more than in the same period of the previous year.[208]
In the first six months of 2019, foreign direct investment amounted to 650.1 million KM (€332.34 million).[209]
According to projections by theWorld Tourism Organization, Bosnia and Herzegovina had the third highest tourism growth rate in the world between 1995 and 2020.[212][213]
In 2017, 1,307,319 tourists visited Bosnia and Herzegovina, an increase of 13.7%, and had 2,677,125 overnight hotel stays, a 12.3% increase from the previous year. 71.5% of the tourists came from foreign countries.[214]
In 2018, 1.883.772 tourists visited Bosnia and Herzegovina, an increase of 44,1%, and had 3.843.484 overnight hotel stays, a 43.5% increase from the previous year. Also, 71.2% of the tourists came from foreign countries.[215]
In 2006, when ranking the best cities in the world,Lonely Planet placedSarajevo, thenational capital[1] and host of the1984 Winter Olympics, as #43 on the list.[216] Tourism in Sarajevo is chiefly focused on historical, religious, and cultural aspects. In 2010, Lonely Planet's "Best in Travel" nominated it as one of the top ten cities to visit that year.[217] Sarajevo also won travel blog Foxnomad's "Best City to Visit" competition in 2012, beating more than one hundred other cities around the entire world.[218]
Međugorje has become one of the most popular pilgrimage sites forCatholics from around the world and has turned into Europe's third most important religious place, where each year more than 1 million people visit.[219] It has been estimated that 30 million pilgrims have come to Međugorje since the reputed apparitions began in 1981.[220] Since 2019, pilgrimages to Međugorje have been officially authorized and organized by theVatican.[221]
Bosnia has also become an increasingly popular skiing andEcotourism destination. The mountains that hosted the winter olympic games ofBjelašnica,Jahorina andIgman are the most visited skiing mountains in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina remains one of the last undiscovered natural regions of the southern area of theAlps, with vast tracts of wild and untouched nature attracting adventurers and nature lovers.National Geographic named Bosnia and Herzegovina as the best mountain biking adventure destination for 2012.[222] The centralBosnian Dinaric Alps are favored by hikers and mountaineers, as they contain bothMediterranean andAlpine climates.Whitewater rafting has become somewhat of anational pastime in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[223] The primary rivers used for whitewater rafting in the country include theVrbas,Tara,Drina,Neretva andUna.[224] Meanwhile, the most prominent rivers are the Vrbas and Tara, as they both hostedThe 2009 World Rafting Championship.[225][226] The reason the Tara river is immensely popular for whitewater rafting is because it contains the deepestriver canyon in Europe, theTara River Canyon.[227][228]
Most recently, theHuffington Post named Bosnia and Herzegovina the "9th Greatest Adventure in the World for 2013", adding that the country boasts "the cleanest water and air in Europe; the greatest untouched forests; and the most wildlife. The best way to experience is the three rivers trip, which purls through the best the Balkans have to offer."[229]
The Bosnian communications market was fullyliberalised in January 2006. The threelandline telephone operators predominantly provide services in their operating areas but have nationwide licenses for domestic and international calls. Mobile data services are also available, including high-speedEDGE,3G and4G services.[231]
Oslobođenje (Liberation), founded in 1943, is one of the country's longest running continuously circulating newspapers. There are many national publications, including theDnevni avaz (Daily Voice), founded in 1995, andJutarnje Novine (Morning News), to name but a few in circulation in Sarajevo.[232] Other local periodicals include the CroatianHrvatska riječ newspaper and BosnianStart magazine, as well asSlobodna Bosna (Free Bosnia) andBH Dani (BH Days) weekly newspapers.Novi Plamen, a monthly magazine, was the most left-wing publication. International news stationAl Jazeera maintains asister channel catering to theBalkan region,Al Jazeera Balkans, broadcasting out of and based in Sarajevo.[233] Since 2014, theN1 platform has broadcast as an affiliate ofCNN International, with offices in Sarajevo,Zagreb andBelgrade.[234]
As of 2021, Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked second highest inpress freedom in the region, afterCroatia, and is placed 58th internationally.[235]
As of December 2021[update], there are 3,374,094 internet users in the country, or 95.55% of the entire population.[236]
Primary schooling lasts for nine years. Secondary education is provided by general and technical secondary schools (typicallyGymnasiums) where studies typically last for four years. All forms of secondary schooling include an element ofvocational training. Pupils graduating from general secondary schools obtain theMatura and can enroll in any tertiary educational institution or academy by passing a qualification examination prescribed by the governing body or institution. Students graduating technical subjects obtain aDiploma.[239]
Thearchitecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina is largely influenced by four major periods where political and social changes influenced the creation of distinct cultural and architectural habits of the population. Each period made its influence felt and contributed to a greater diversity of cultures and architectural language in this region.
As acountry in transition with a post-war legacy and acomplex domestic political structure, Bosnia and Herzegovina's media system is under transformation. In the early post-war period (1995–2005), media development was guided mainly by international donors and cooperation agencies, who invested to help reconstruct, diversify, democratize and professionalize media outlets.[240][241]
Post-war developments included the establishment of an independent Communication Regulatory Agency, the adoption of a Press Code, the establishment of the Press Council, the decriminalization of libel and defamation, the introduction of a rather advanced Freedom of Access to Information Law, and the creation of a Public Service Broadcasting System from the formerly state-owned broadcaster.Yet, internationally backed positive developments have been often obstructed by domestic elites, and the professionalisation of media and journalists has proceeded only slowly. High levels of partisanship and linkages between the media and the political systems hinder the adherence to professional code of conducts.[241]
TheNational Theater was founded in 1919 inSarajevo and its first director was dramatistBranislav Nušić. Magazines such asNovi Plamen orSarajevske sveske are some of the more prominent publications covering cultural and literary themes.
Theart of Bosnia and Herzegovina was always evolving and ranged from the original medieval tombstones calledStećci to paintings inKotromanić court. Twenty stećak necropolis sites in Bosnia and Herzegovina were added on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2006.[242] However, only with the arrival ofAustro-Hungarians did the painting renaissance in Bosnia really begin to flourish. The first educated artists from European academies appeared with the beginning of the 20th century. Among those are:Gabrijel Jurkić,Petar Šain,Roman Petrović andLazar Drljača.
Probably the most distinctive and identifiably "Bosnian" of music, Sevdalinka is a kind of emotional, melancholic folk song that often describes sad subjects such as love and loss, the death of a dear person or heartbreak. Sevdalinkas were traditionally performed with asaz, a Turkish string instrument, which was later replaced by the accordion. However the more modern arrangement is typically a vocalist accompanied by the accordion along with snare drums, upright bass, guitars, clarinets and violins.
Rural folk traditions in Bosnia and Herzegovina include the shouted,polyphonic ganga and "ravne pjesme" (flat song) styles, as well as instruments like a dronelessbagpipe, woodenflute andšargija. The gusle, an instrument found throughout theBalkans, is also used to accompany ancientSlavicepicpoems. There are also Bosnian folk songs in theLadino language, derived from the area's Jewish population.
Bosnian roots music came fromCentral Bosnia,Posavina, theDrina valley andKalesija. It is usually performed by singers with two violinists and a šargija player. These bands first appeared aroundWorld War I and became popular in the 1960s. This is the third oldest music after the Sevdalinka andilahija. Self-taught people, mostly in two or three members of the different choices of old instruments, mostly in the violin, sacking, saz, drums, flutes (zurle) or wooden flute, as others have already called, the original performers of Bosnian music that can not be written notes, transmitted by ear from generation to generation, family is usually hereditary. It is thought to be brought from Persia-Kalesi tribe that settled in the area of the present Sprečanski valleys and hence probably the name Kalesija. In this part of Bosnia, it is the most common. This kind of music was enjoyed by all three peoples in Bosnia, Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats, and it contributed a lot to reconcile people socializing, entertainment and other organizations through festivals. In Kalesija, it is maintained each year with the Original Bosnian Festival music.
Sarajevo is internationally renowned for its eclectic and diverse selection of festivals. TheSarajevo Film Festival was established in 1995, during theBosnian War and has become the premier and largest film festival in the Balkans andSoutheast Europe.
Bosnian meat platter that contains, among other things,ćevapi, which is considered thenational dish of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnian cuisine uses many spices, in moderate quantities. Most dishes are light, as they are boiled; the sauces are fully natural, consisting of little more than the natural juices of the vegetables in the dish. Typical ingredients include tomatoes, potatoes, onions,garlic,peppers,cucumbers, carrots,cabbage,mushrooms,spinach,zucchini,dried beans, fresh beans,plums, milk,paprika and cream calledpavlaka. Bosnian cuisine is balanced betweenWestern andEastern influences. As a result of theOttoman administration for almost 500 years, Bosnian food is closely related to Turkish,Greek and other former Ottoman andMediterranean cuisines. However, because of years of Austrian rule, there are many influences fromCentral Europe. Typical meat dishes include primarily beef andlamb. Some local specialties arećevapi,burek,dolma,sarma,pilav,goulash,ajvar and a whole range of Eastern sweets. Ćevapi is a grilled dish of minced meat, a type ofkebab, popular in former Yugoslavia and considered a national dish in Bosnia and Herzegovina[244] andSerbia.[245][246][247] Local wines come fromHerzegovina where the climate is suitable for growing grapes. Herzegovinianloza (similar to ItalianGrappa but less sweet) is very popular. Plum (rakija) or apple (jabukovača) alcohol beverages are produced in the north. In the south, distilleries used to produce vast quantities ofbrandy and supply all of ex-Yugoslav alcohol factories (brandy is the base of mostalcoholic drinks).
Coffeehouses, whereBosnian coffee is served indžezva withrahat lokum andsugar cubes, are common inSarajevo and every city in the country. Coffee drinking is a favorite Bosnian pastime and part of the culture. Bosnia and Herzegovina is the ninth country in the entire world by per capita coffee consumption.[248]
^Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917]. Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.).English Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN3-12-539683-2.
^"Membership Action Plan (MAP)". NATO. Archived fromthe original on 18 April 2015. Retrieved6 April 2015.In April 2010, when the foreign ministers of NATO member countries met in Tallinn, after reviewing the progress that Bosnia and Herzegovina had made in its reform efforts, they invited the country to join the Membership Action Plan.
^Miller, Norma. Tacitus: Annals I, 2002,ISBN1-85399-358-1. It had originally been joined to Illyricum, but after the great Illyrian/Pannonian revolt of AD 6 it was made a separate province with its own governor
^Stipčević, Aleksandar,The Illyrians: History and Culture, 1974, Noyess Press
^Malcolm 2002, p. 8:The Serbs settled in an area corresponding to modern south-western Serbia (a territory which later in the middle ages became known as Raška or Rascia), and gradually extended their rule into the territories of Duklje or Dioclea (Montenegro) and Hum or Zachumlje (Herzegovina). The Croats settled in areas roughly corresponding to modern Croatia, and probably also including most of Bosnia proper, apart from the eastern strip of the Drina valley.
^Fine 1991, p. 53(I):The Croats settled in Croatia, Dalmatia, and western Bosnia. The rest of Bosnia seems to have been territory between Serb and Croatian rule.
^Paul Mojzes. Religion and the war in Bosnia. Oxford University Press, 2000, p 22; "Medieval Bosnia was founded as an independent state (Banate) by Ban Kulin (1180–1204).".
^Robert J. Donia, John V.A Fine (2005).Bosnia and Hercegovina: A Tradition Betrayed. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.ISBN9781850652120.Archived from the original on 15 September 2015., p. 71;In the Middle Ages the Bosnians called themselves "Bosnians" or used even more local (county, regional) names.
^Kolstø, Pål (2005).Myths and boundaries in south-eastern Europe. Hurst & Co.ISBN9781850657675.Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved16 June 2015., p. 120;..medieval Bosnia was a country of one people, of the single Bosnian people called the Bošnjani, who belonged to three confessions.
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