Betrayal is the breaking orviolation of a presumptivecontract,trust, orconfidence that producesmoral and psychological conflict within a relationship amongst individuals, between organizations or between individuals and organizations. Often betrayal is the act of supporting a rival group, or it is a complete break from previously decided upon or presumednorms by one party from the others. Someone who betrays others is commonly known as atraitor orbetrayer.[1]
Betrayal is a commonly used story element in fiction, sometimes used as aplot twist.
PhilosophersJudith Shklar andPeter Johnson, authors ofThe Ambiguities of Betrayal andFrames of Deceit, respectively, contend that while no clear definition of betrayal is available, betrayal is more effectively understood throughliterature.[2]
Rodger L. Jackson explains why a clear definition is needed:
Betrayal is both a "people" problem and a philosopher's problem. Philosophers should be able to clarify the concept of betrayal, compare and contrast it with other moral concepts, and critically assess betrayal situations. At the practical level people should be able to make honest sense of betrayal and also to temper its consequences: to handle it, not be assaulted by it. What we need is a conceptually clear account of betrayal that differentiates between genuine and merely perceived betrayal, and which also provides systematic guidance for the assessment of alleged betrayal in real life.
An act of betrayal creates a constellation of negative behaviours, thoughts, and feelings in both its victims and its perpetrators. Accepting the betrayal and going no contact is seen by some as the best route forward.[who?] The alternative is to stay in connection and realize the trespass can happen again, and may choose to avoid doing certain things to decrease severity.[3]
The key difference between traditionalposttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and betrayal trauma is that the former is historically seen as being caused primarily byfear, whereas betrayal trauma is a response to extremeanger. Another key difference is that betrayal trauma involves an individual experiencing a violation of trust between a trusted individual or institution, whereas posttraumatic stress disorder does not involve a violation from a trusted source.[5]
John Gottman'sWhat Makes Love Last? describes betrayal as "a noxious invader, arriving with great stealth" that undermines seemingly stable romances and lies at the heart of every failing relationship, even if the couple is unaware of it. Gottman computed a betrayal metric by calculating how unwilling each partner was to sacrifice for the other and the relationship. A consistently elevated betrayal metric served as an indicator that the couple was at risk for infidelity or another serious disloyalty. Some types of betrayal in romantic relationships include sexual infidelity, conditional commitment, a nonsexual affair, lying, forming a coalition against the partner, absenteeism, disrespect, unfairness, selfishness, and breaking promises.[6]
Betrayal blindness is the unawareness, not-knowing, and forgetting exhibited by people towards betrayal.[8]
The term "betrayal blindness" was introduced in 1996 by Freyd, and expanded in 1999 by Freyd and then again in 2013 by Freyd and Birrell through theBetrayal Trauma Theory.[8] This betrayal blindness may extend to betrayals that are not considered traditional traumas, such as adultery, and inequities. Betrayal blindness is not exclusive to victims. Perpetrators, and witnesses may also display betrayal blindness in order to preserve personal relationships, their relationships with institutions, and social systems upon which they depend.[8]
The term "Institutional Betrayal" refers to wrongdoings perpetrated by an institution upon individuals dependent on that institution. This includes failure to prevent or respond supportively to wrongdoings by individuals (e.g. sexual assault) committed within the context of the institution.[8]
Freyd, J. J ., Klest, B., & Allard, C. B. (2005) Betrayal trauma: Relationship to physical health, psychological distress, and a written disclosure intervention.Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 6(3), 83-104.
Hensley, A. L. (2004).Why good people go bad: A psychoanalytic and behavioral assessment of the Abu Ghraib Detention Facility staff. An unpublished courts-martial defense strategy presented to the Area Defense Counsel in Washington DC on December 10, 2004.
Hensley, A. L. (2007). Why good people go bad: A case study of the Abu Ghraib Courts-Martials. In G. W. Dougherty,Proceedings of the 5th annual proceedings of the Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference. Ann Arbor, MI: Loving Healing Press.
Hensley, A. L. (2009a). Gender, personality, and coping: Unraveling gender in military post-deployment wellbeing (preliminary results). In G. Dougherty (Ed.).Return to equilibrium: Proceedings of the 7th Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference (pp. 105–148). Ann Arbor, MI: Loving Healing Press.
Hensley, A. L. (2009b).Gender, personality and coping: Unraveling gender in military post-deployment physical and mental wellness. Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest UMI.
Hensley, A. L. (2009c). Betrayal trauma: Insidious purveyor of PTSD. In G. Dougherty (Ed.).Return to equilibrium: Proceedings of the 7th Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference (pp. 105–148). Ann Arbor, MI: Loving Healing Press.
Hersey, B. & Buhl, M.(January/February 1990). The Betrayal of Date Rape.InView.
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983).Mental Models: Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference, and Consciousness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Maslow, A. (1954).Motivation and personality. New York: Harper.
McNulty, F. (1980). The burning bed. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Musen, K. & Zimbardo, P. G. (1991).Quiet rage: The Stanford prison study. Videorecording. Stanford, CA: Psychology Dept., Stanford University.
Reis, H. T.; Rusbult, C. E. (2004).Close relationships: key readings. Psychology Press.ISBN978-0-86377-596-3.
Look upbetrayal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Robin Marie Kowalski (2009). "Betrayal". In Harry T. Reis; Susan Sprecher; Susan K. Sprecher (eds.).Encyclopedia of Human Relationships. Vol. 1. SAGE. pp. 174–176.ISBN978-1-4129-5846-2.
James Allen Grady (2008). "Betrayal". In Yudit Kornberg Greenberg (ed.).Encyclopedia of love in world religions. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. pp. 74–76.ISBN9781851099801.
Freyd, Jennifer J. (2008). "Betrayal trauma". In G. Reyes; J.D. Elhai; J.D.Ford (eds.).Encyclopedia of Psychological Trauma. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 76.
Nachman Ben-Yehuda (2001).Betrayal and treason: violations of trust and loyalty. Crime & society. Westview Press.ISBN978-0-8133-9776-4.
Gilbert Reyes; Jon D. Elhai & Julian D. Ford (2008). "Betrayal trauma".The Encyclopedia of Psychological Trauma. John Wiley and Sons.ISBN978-0-470-44748-2.
Alan L. Hensley (2009). "Betrayal Trauma: Insidious Purveyor of PTSD". In George W. Doherty (ed.).Return to Equilibrium: The Proceedings of the 7th Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference. Loving Healing Press.ISBN978-1-932690-86-6.
Malin Åkerström (1991).Betrayal and betrayers: the sociology of treachery. Transaction Publishers.ISBN978-0-88738-358-8.
Warren H. Jones; Laurie Couch & Susan Scott (1997). "Trust and Betrayal". In Robert Hogan; John A. Johnson & Stephen R. Briggs (eds.).Handbook of personality psychology. Gulf Professional Publishing.ISBN978-0-12-134646-1.
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