Beryllium is achemical element; it hassymbolBe andatomic number 4. It is a steel-gray, hard, strong, lightweight and brittlealkaline earth metal. It is adivalent element that occurs naturally only in combination with other elements to form minerals.Gemstones high in beryllium includeberyl (aquamarine,emerald,red beryl) andchrysoberyl. It is arelatively rare element in theuniverse, usually occurring as a product of thespallation of larger atomic nuclei that have collided withcosmic rays. Within the cores of stars, beryllium is depleted as it is fused into heavier elements. Beryllium constitutes about 0.0004 percent by mass of Earth's crust. The world's annual beryllium production of 220 tons is usually manufactured by extraction from the mineralberyl, a difficult process because beryllium bonds strongly tooxygen.
In structural applications, the combination of highflexural rigidity,thermal stability,thermal conductivity and lowdensity (1.85 times that of water) make beryllium a desirableaerospace material for aircraft components,missiles,spacecraft, andsatellites.[12] Because of its low density andatomic mass, beryllium is relatively transparent toX-rays and other forms ofionizing radiation; therefore, it is the most common window material for X-ray equipment and components ofparticle detectors.[12] When added as analloying element toaluminium,copper (notably the alloyberyllium copper),iron, ornickel, beryllium improves many physical properties.[12] For example, tools and components made of beryllium copperalloys arestrong andhard and do not create sparks when they strike a steel surface. In air, the surface of beryllium oxidizes readily at room temperature to form apassivation layer 1–10 nm thick that protects it from further oxidation and corrosion.[13] The metal oxidizes in bulk (beyond thepassivation layer) when heated above 500 °C (932 °F),[14] and burns brilliantly when heated to about 2,500 °C (4,530 °F).[15]
The commercial use of beryllium requires the use of appropriate dust control equipment and industrial controls at all times because of thetoxicity of inhaled beryllium-containing dusts that can cause a chronic life-threatening allergic disease,berylliosis, in some people.[16] Berylliosis is typically manifested by chronicpulmonary fibrosis and, in severe cases, right sidedheart failure and death.[17]
Beryllium is a steel gray and hardmetal that is brittle at room temperature and has a close-packed hexagonalcrystal structure.[12] It has exceptionalstiffness (Young's modulus 287 GPa) and amelting point of 1287 °C. Themodulus of elasticity of beryllium is approximately 35% greater than that of steel. The combination of this modulus and a relatively low density results in an unusually fastsound conduction speed in beryllium – about 12.9 km/s atambient conditions. Other significant properties are high specific heat (1925 J·kg−1·K−1) and thermal conductivity (216 W·m−1·K−1), which make beryllium the metal with the best heat dissipation characteristics per unit weight. In combination with the relatively low coefficient of linearthermal expansion (11.4 × 10−6 K−1), these characteristics result in a unique stability under conditions of thermal loading.[18]
Naturally occurring beryllium, save for slight contamination by thecosmogenic radioisotopes, is isotopically pure beryllium-9,[1] which has anuclear spin of3/2−.[11] The inelastic scatteringcross section of beryllium increases with relation to neutron energy,[19] allowing for significant slowing of higher-energy neutrons.[20] Therefore, it works as aneutron reflector andneutron moderator; the exact strength of neutron slowing strongly depends on the purity and size of the crystallites in the material.[21]
The single primordial beryllium isotope9Be also undergoes a (n,2n) neutron reaction with neutron energies over about 1.9 MeV, to produce8Be, which almost immediately breaks into two alpha particles. Thus, for high-energy neutrons, beryllium is a neutron multiplier, releasing more neutrons than it absorbs. This nuclear reaction is:[22]
9 4Be + n → 24 2He + 2 n
Neutrons are liberated when berylliumnuclei are struck by energeticalpha particles[18] producing the nuclear reaction
9 4Be +4 2He →12 6C + n
where4 2He is an alpha particle and12 6C is acarbon-12 nucleus.[22]Beryllium also releases neutrons under bombardment by gamma rays.[23] Thus, natural beryllium bombarded either by alphas or gammas from a suitable radioisotope is a key component of most radioisotope-powerednuclear reactionneutron sources for the laboratory production of free neutrons.[24][25]
Small amounts oftritium are liberated when9 4Be nuclei absorb low energy neutrons in the three-step nuclear reaction
6 2He has a half-life of only 0.8 seconds, β− is an electron, and6 3Li has a high neutron absorption cross section. Tritium is a radioisotope of concern in nuclear reactor waste streams.[26]
A very small fraction – 10−9 – of the primordial atoms created in theBig Bang nucleosynthesis were7Be. This is a consequence of the low density of matter when the temperature of the universe has cooled enough for small nuclei to be stable. Creating such nuclei require nuclear reaction collisions that are rare.[28]: 297 7Be is unstable and decays byelectron capture into7Li with a half-life of 53 days, but in the early universe this decay channel was unavailable due to atoms being fully ionized. The conversion of7Be to Li was only complete near the time ofrecombination.[29]
Both stable and unstable isotopes of beryllium are created in stars, but the radioisotopes do not last long. It is believed that the beryllium in the universe was created in the interstellar medium whencosmic rays induced fission in heavier elements found in interstellar gas and dust, a process calledcosmic ray spallation.[30][31] Natural beryllium is solely made up of the stable isotope beryllium-9. Beryllium is the onlymonoisotopic element with an even atomic number.[1]
Plot showing variations in solar activity, including variation in sunspot number (red) and10Be concentration (blue). Note that the beryllium scale is inverted, so increases on this scale indicate lower10Be levels
Radioactive cosmogenic10Be is produced in theatmosphere of the Earth by thecosmic ray spallation ofoxygen.[32]10Be accumulates at thesoil surface, where its relatively longhalf-life (1.36 million years) permits a longresidence time before decaying toboron-10. Thus,10Be and its daughter products are used to examine naturalsoil erosion,soil formation and the development oflateritic soils, and as aproxy for measurement of the variations insolar activity and the age ofice cores.[33] The production of10Be is inversely proportional to solar activity, because increasedsolar wind during periods of high solar activity decreases the flux of galactic cosmic rays that reach the Earth.[32] Nuclear explosions also form10Be by the reaction of fast neutrons with13C in the carbon dioxide in air. This is one of the indicators of past activity atnuclear weapon test sites.[34]The isotope7Be (half-life 53 days) is also cosmogenic, and shows an atmospheric abundance inversely proportional to solar activity too.[35]
8Be has a very short half-life of about 8×10−17 s that contributes to its significant cosmological role, as elements heavier than beryllium could not have been produced by nuclear fusion in theBig Bang.[36] This is due to the lack of sufficient time during the Big Bang'snucleosynthesis phase to produce carbon by the fusion of4He nuclei and the very low concentrations of available beryllium-8. Britishastronomer SirFred Hoyle first showed that the energy levels of8Be and12C allow carbon production by the so-calledtriple-alpha process in helium-fueled stars where more nucleosynthesis time is available. This process allows carbon to be produced in stars, but not in the Big Bang. Star-created carbon (the basis ofcarbon-based life) is thus a component in the elements in the gas and dust ejected byAGB stars andsupernovae (see alsoBig Bang nucleosynthesis), as well as the creation of all other elements withatomic numbers larger than that of carbon.[37]
The 2s electrons of beryllium may contribute to chemical bonding. Therefore, when7Be decays by L-electron capture, it does so by taking electrons from itsatomic orbitals that may be participating in bonding. This makes its decay rate dependent to a measurable degree upon its chemical surroundings – a rare occurrence in nuclear decay.[38]
The exotic isotopes11Be and14Be are known to exhibit anuclear halo. This phenomenon can be understood as the nuclei of11Be and14Be have, respectively, 1 and 4 neutrons orbiting substantially outside the expected nuclear radius.[39]
The Sun has a concentration of 0.1parts per billion (ppb) of beryllium.[40] Beryllium has a concentration of 2 to 6parts per million (ppm) in the Earth's crust and is the 47th most abundant element.[41][42] It is most concentrated in the soils at 6 ppm.[42] Trace amounts of9Be are found in the Earth's atmosphere.[42] The concentration of beryllium in sea water is 0.2–0.6parts per trillion.[42][43] In stream water, however, beryllium is more abundant with a concentration of 0.1 ppb.[44]
Beryllium is found in over 100 minerals,[45] but most are uncommon to rare. The more common beryllium containing minerals include:bertrandite (Be4Si2O7(OH)2),beryl (Al2Be3Si6O18),chrysoberyl (Al2BeO4) andphenakite (Be2SiO4). Precious forms of beryl areaquamarine,red beryl andemerald.[18][46][47] The green color in gem-quality forms of beryl comes from varying amounts of chromium (about 2% for emerald).[48]
The two main ores of beryllium, beryl and bertrandite, are found in Argentina, Brazil, India, Madagascar, Russia and the United States.[48] Total world reserves of beryllium ore are greater than 400,000 tonnes.[48]
The extraction of beryllium from its compounds is a difficult process due to its high affinity for oxygen at elevated temperatures, and its ability to reduce water when its oxide film is removed. Currently the United States, China and Kazakhstan are the only three countries involved in the industrial-scale extraction of beryllium.[49] Kazakhstan produces beryllium from a concentrate stockpiled before thebreakup of the Soviet Union around 1991. This resource had become nearly depleted by mid-2010s.[50]
Production of beryllium in Russia was halted in 1997, and is planned to be resumed in the 2020s.[51][52]
Beryllium is most commonly extracted from the mineralberyl, which is eithersintered using an extraction agent or melted into a soluble mixture. The sintering process involves mixing beryl withsodium fluorosilicate and soda at 770 °C (1,420 °F) to formsodium fluoroberyllate,aluminium oxide andsilicon dioxide.[12]Beryllium hydroxide is precipitated from a solution of sodium fluoroberyllate andsodium hydroxide in water. The extraction of beryllium using the melt method involves grinding beryl into a powder and heating it to 1,650 °C (3,000 °F). The melt is quickly cooled with water and then reheated 250 to 300 °C (482 to 572 °F) in concentratedsulfuric acid, mostly yieldingberyllium sulfate andaluminium sulfate. Aqueousammonia is then used to remove the aluminium and sulfur, leaving beryllium hydroxide.[12]
Beryllium hydroxide created using either the sinter or melt method is then converted intoberyllium fluoride orberyllium chloride. To form the fluoride, aqueousammonium hydrogen fluoride is added to beryllium hydroxide to yield a precipitate of ammoniumtetrafluoroberyllate, which is heated to 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) to form beryllium fluoride.[12] Heating the fluoride to 900 °C (1,650 °F) withmagnesium forms finely divided beryllium, and additional heating to 1,300 °C (2,370 °F) creates the compact metal.[12] Heating beryllium hydroxide formsberyllium oxide, which becomes beryllium chloride when combined with carbon and chlorine.Electrolysis of molten beryllium chloride is then used to obtain the metal.[12]
A beryllium atom has the electronic configuration [He] 2s2. The predominantoxidation state of beryllium is +2; the beryllium atom has lost both of its valence electrons. Lower oxidation states complexes of beryllium are exceedingly rare. For example, a stable complex with a Be-Be bond, which formally features beryllium in the +1 oxidation state, has been described.[7] Beryllium in the 0 oxidation state is also known in a complex with a Mg-Be bond.[5] Beryllium's chemical behavior is largely a result of its smallatomic andionic radii. It thus has very highionization potentials and does not form divalent cations. Instead it forms two covalent bonds with a tendency to polymerize, as in solid BeCl2.[12].: 37 Its chemistry has similarities to that of aluminium, an example of adiagonal relationship.[53]: 107
At room temperature, the surface of beryllium forms a 1−10 nm-thick oxidepassivation layer that prevents further reactions with air, except for gradual thickening of the oxide up to about 25 nm. When heated above about 500 °C, oxidation into the bulk metal progresses along grain boundaries.[14] Once the metal is ignited in air by heating above the oxide melting point around 2500 °C, beryllium burns brilliantly,[15] forming a mixture ofberyllium oxide andberyllium nitride. Beryllium dissolves readily in non-oxidizing acids, such as HCl and diluted H2SO4, but not innitric acid or water as this forms the oxide. This behavior is similar to that of aluminium. Beryllium also dissolves and reacts with alkali solutions.[12][53]: 112
Binary compounds of beryllium(II) are polymeric in the solid state.BeF2 has asilica-like structure with corner-shared BeF4 tetrahedra.BeCl2 andBeBr2 have chain structures with edge-shared tetrahedra.Beryllium oxide, BeO, is a whiterefractory solid which has awurtzite crystal structure and a thermal conductivity as high as some metals. BeO isamphoteric.Beryllium sulfide,selenide andtelluride are known, all having thezincblende structure.[54]Beryllium nitride, Be3N2, is a high-melting-point compound which is readily hydrolyzed.Beryllium azide, BeN6 is known andberyllium phosphide, Be3P2 has a similar structure to Be3N2. A number of berylliumborides are known, such as Be5B, Be4B, Be2B, BeB2, BeB6 and BeB12.Beryllium carbide, Be2C, is a refractory brick-red compound that reacts with water to givemethane.[54] Berylliumsilicides have been identified in the form of variously sizednanoclusters,[55] formed through a spontaneous reaction between pure beryllium and silicon.[56] The halides BeX2 (X = F, Cl, Br, and I) have a linear monomeric molecular structure in the gas phase.[53]: 117
Beryllium is a strong electron acceptor leading to Be bonding effects similar tohydrogen bonding.[57]
Schematic structure ofbasic beryllium acetateBeryllium hydrolysis. Water molecules attached to Be are omitted in this diagramStructure of the trimeric hydrolysis product of beryllium(II)
Solutions of beryllium salts, such asberyllium sulfate andberyllium nitrate, are acidic because of hydrolysis of the [Be(H2O)4]2+ ion. The concentration of the first hydrolysis product, [Be(H2O)3(OH)]+, is less than 1% of the beryllium concentration. The most stable hydrolysis product is thetrimeric ion [Be3(OH)3(H2O)6]3+.Beryllium hydroxide, Be(OH)2, is insoluble in water at pH 5 or more. Consequently, beryllium compounds are generally insoluble at biological pH. Because of this, inhalation of beryllium metal dust leads to the development of the fatal condition ofberylliosis. Be(OH)2 dissolves in stronglyalkaline solutions.[58]
Beryllium(II) forms few complexes with monodentate ligands because the water molecules in the aquo-ion, [Be(H2O)4]2+ are bound very strongly to the beryllium ion. Notable exceptions are the series of water-soluble complexes with thefluoride ion:[59]
[Be(H2O)4]2+ +n F− ⇌ Be[(H2O)2−nFn]2− +n H2O
Beryllium(II) forms many complexes with bidentate ligands containing oxygen-donor atoms.[58] The species [Be3O(H2PO4)6]2- is notable for having a 3-coordinate oxide ion at its center.Basic beryllium acetate, Be4O(OAc)6, has an oxide ion surrounded by a tetrahedron of beryllium atoms.
With organic ligands, such as themalonate ion, the acid deprotonates when forming the complex. The donor atoms are two oxygens.
H2A + [Be(H2O)4]2+ ⇌ [BeA(H2O)2] + 2 H+ + 2 H2O
H2A + [BeA(H2O)2] ⇌ [BeA2]2− + 2 H+ + 2 H2O
The formation of a complex is in competition with the metal ion-hydrolysis reaction and mixed complexes with both the anion and the hydroxide ion are also formed. For example, derivatives of the cyclic trimer are known, with a bidentate ligand replacing one or more pairs of water molecules.[60]
Aliphatichydroxycarboxylic acids such asglycolic acid form rather weak monodentate complexes in solution, in which the hydroxyl group remains intact. In the solid state, the hydroxyl group may deprotonate: a hexamer,Na4[Be6(OCH2(O)O)6], was isolated long ago.[60][61] Aromatic hydroxy ligands (i.e.phenols) form relatively strong complexes. For example, log K1 and log K2 values of 12.2 and 9.3 have been reported for complexes withtiron.[60][62]
Beryllium has generally a rather poor affinity forammine ligands.[60][63] There are many early reports of complexes with amino acids, but unfortunately they are not reliable as the concomitant hydrolysis reactions were not understood at the time of publication. Values for log β of ca. 6 to 7 have been reported. The degree of formation is small because of competition with hydrolysis reactions.[60][63]
Organoberyllium chemistry is limited to academic research due to the cost and toxicity of beryllium, beryllium derivatives and reagents required for the introduction of beryllium, such asberyllium chloride. Organometallic beryllium compounds are known to be highly reactive.[64] Examples of known organoberyllium compounds are dineopentylberyllium,[65]beryllocene (Cp2Be),[66][67][68][69] diallylberyllium (by exchange reaction of diethyl beryllium with triallyl boron),[70] bis(1,3-trimethylsilylallyl)beryllium,[71] Be(mes)2,[64] and (beryllium(I) complex) diberyllocene.[7] Ligands can also be aryls[72] and alkynyls.[73]
The mineralberyl, which contains beryllium, has been used at least since thePtolemaic dynasty of Egypt.[74] In the first centuryCE, Roman naturalistPliny the Elder mentioned in his encyclopediaNatural History that beryl andemerald ("smaragdus") were similar.[75] ThePapyrus Graecus Holmiensis, written in the third or fourth century CE, contains notes on how to prepare artificial emerald and beryl.[75]
In a 1798 paper read before theInstitut de France, Vauquelin reported that he found a new "earth" by dissolvingaluminium hydroxide from emerald and beryl in an additionalalkali.[77] The editors of the journalAnnales de chimie et de physique named the new earth "glucine" for the sweet taste of some of its compounds.[78][79] The nameberyllium was first used byFriedrich Wöhler in 1828.[80][81] Both beryllium and glucinum were used concurrently until 1949, when theIUPAC adopted beryllium as the standard name of the element.[82][83]
Friedrich Wöhler was one of the men who independently isolated beryllium
Using an alcohol lamp, Wöhler heated alternating layers of beryllium chloride and potassium in a wired-shut platinum crucible. The above reaction immediately took place and caused the crucible to become white hot. Upon cooling and washing the resulting gray-black powder, he saw that it was made of fine particles with a dark metallic luster.[85] The highly reactive potassium had been produced by theelectrolysis of its compounds.[86] He did not succeed to melt the beryllium particles.[85]
The direct electrolysis of a molten mixture ofberyllium fluoride andsodium fluoride byPaul Lebeau in 1898 resulted in the first pure (99.5 to 99.8%) samples of beryllium.[85] However, industrial production started only after the First World War. The original industrial involvement included subsidiaries and scientists related to theUnion Carbide and Carbon Corporation in Cleveland, Ohio, andSiemens & Halske AG in Berlin. In the US, the process was ruled by Hugh S. Cooper, director of The Kemet Laboratories Company. In Germany, the first commercially successful process for producing beryllium was developed in 1921 byAlfred Stock andHans Goldschmidt.[87]
A sample of beryllium was bombarded withalpha rays from the decay ofradium in a 1932 experiment byJames Chadwick that uncovered the existence of theneutron.[48] This same method is used in one class of radioisotope-based laboratoryneutron sources that produce 30 neutrons for every million α particles.[41]
Beryllium production saw a rapid increase during World War II due to the rising demand for hard beryllium-copper alloys andphosphors forfluorescent lights. Most early fluorescent lamps usedzinc orthosilicate with varying content of beryllium to emit greenish light. Small additions of magnesiumtungstate improved the blue part of the spectrum to yield an acceptable white light. Halophosphate-based phosphors replaced beryllium-based phosphors after beryllium was found to be toxic.[88]
Electrolysis of a mixture ofberyllium fluoride andsodium fluoride was used to isolate beryllium during the 19th century. The metal's high melting point makes this process more energy-consuming than corresponding processes used for thealkali metals. Early in the 20th century, the production of beryllium by the thermal decomposition ofberyllium iodide was investigated following the success of a similar process for the production ofzirconium, but this process proved to be uneconomical for volume production.[89]
Pure beryllium metal did not become readily available until 1957, even though it had been used as an alloying metal to harden and toughen copper much earlier.[48] Beryllium could be produced by reducing beryllium compounds such asberyllium chloride with metallic potassium or sodium. Currently, most beryllium is produced by reducing beryllium fluoride withmagnesium.[90] The price on the American market forvacuum-cast beryllium ingots was about $338 per pound ($745 per kilogram) in 2001.[91]
Between 1998 and 2008, the world's production of beryllium had decreased from 343 to about 200tonnes. It then increased to 230 metric tons by 2018, of which 170 tonnes came from the United States.[92][93]
Beryllium was named for the semiprecious mineralberyl, from which it was first isolated.[94][95][96] Martin Klaproth, having independently determined that beryl and emerald share an element, preferred the name "beryllina" due to the fact thatyttria also formed sweet salts.[97][80]
AlthoughHumphry Davy failed to isolate it, he proposed the nameglucium for the new metal, derived from the nameglucina for the earth it was found in; altered forms of this name,glucinium orglucinum (symbol Gl) continued to be used into the 20th century.[98]
Beryllium target which converts a proton beam into a neutron beamA square beryllium foil mounted in a steel case to be used as a window between a vacuum chamber and anX-ray microscope. Beryllium is highly transparent to X-rays owing to its lowatomic number.
Because of its low atomic number and very low absorption for X-rays, the oldest and still one of the most important applications of beryllium is in radiation windows forX-ray tubes.[48] Extreme demands are placed on purity and cleanliness of beryllium to avoid artifacts in the X-ray images. Thin beryllium foils are used as radiation windows for X-ray detectors, and their extremely low absorption minimizes the heating effects caused by high-intensity, low energy X-rays typical ofsynchrotron radiation. Vacuum-tight windows and beam-tubes for radiation experiments on synchrotrons are manufactured exclusively from beryllium. In scientific setups for various X-ray emission studies (e.g.,energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) the sample holder is usually made of beryllium because its emitted X-rays have much lower energies (≈100 eV) than X-rays from most studied materials.[18]
Lowatomic number also makes beryllium relatively transparent to energeticparticles. Therefore, it is used to build thebeam pipe around the collision region inparticle physics setups, such as all four main detector experiments at theLarge Hadron Collider (ALICE,ATLAS,CMS,LHCb),[99] theTevatron and atSLAC. The low density of beryllium allows collision products to reach the surrounding detectors without significant interaction, its stiffness allows a powerful vacuum to be produced within the pipe to minimize interaction with gases, its thermal stability allows it to function correctly at temperatures of only a few degrees aboveabsolute zero, and itsdiamagnetic nature keeps it from interfering with the complex multipole magnet systems used to steer andfocus theparticle beams.[100]
Mixing about 2.0% beryllium intocopper forms analloy calledberyllium copper that is six times stronger than copper alone.[106] Beryllium alloys are used in many applications because of their combination of elasticity, highelectrical conductivity andthermal conductivity, high strength andhardness, nonmagnetic properties, as well as goodcorrosion andfatigue resistance.[48][12] These applications include non-sparking tools that are used near flammable gases (beryllium nickel),springs, membranes (beryllium nickel andberyllium iron) used in surgical instruments, and high temperature devices.[48][12] As little as 50 parts per million of beryllium alloyed with liquidmagnesium leads to a significant increase in oxidation resistance and decrease in flammability.[12]
Beryllium copper adjustable wrench
The high elastic stiffness of beryllium has led to its extensive use in precision instrumentation, e.g. ininertial guidance systems and in the support mechanisms for optical systems.[18] Beryllium-copper alloys were also applied as a hardening agent in "Jason pistols", which were used to strip the paint from the hulls of ships.[107]
In sound amplification systems, the speed at which sound travels directly affects the resonant frequency of theamplifier, thereby influencing the range of audible high-frequency sounds. Beryllium stands out due to its exceptionally high speed of sound propagation compared to other metals.[108] This unique property allows beryllium to achieve higher resonant frequencies, making it an ideal material for use as adiaphragm in high-quality loudspeakers.[109]
Beryllium was used forcantilevers in high-performancephonograph cartridge styli, where its extreme stiffness and low density allowed for tracking weights to be reduced to 1 gram while still tracking high frequency passages with minimal distortion.[110]
An earlier major application of beryllium was inbrakes for militaryairplanes because of its hardness, high melting point, and exceptional ability todissipate heat. Environmental considerations have led to substitution by other materials.[18]
A metal matrix composite material combining beryllium withaluminium developed under the trade nameAlBeMet for the high performance aerospace industry has low weight but four times the stiffness of aluminum alone.[111]
Berylliummirrors are of particular interest. Large-area mirrors, frequently with ahoneycomb support structure, are used, for example, inmeteorological satellites where low weight and long-term dimensional stability are critical. Smaller beryllium mirrors are used inoptical guidance systems and infire-control systems, e.g. in the German-madeLeopard 1 andLeopard 2main battle tanks. In these systems, very rapid movement of the mirror is required, which again dictates low mass and high rigidity. Usually the beryllium mirror is coated with hardelectroless nickel plating which can be more easily polished to a finer optical finish than beryllium. In some applications, the beryllium blank is polished without any coating. This is particularly applicable tocryogenic operation where thermal expansion mismatch can cause the coating to buckle.[18]
TheJames Webb Space Telescope has 18 hexagonal beryllium sections for its mirrors, each plated with a thin layer of gold.[112] Because JWST will face a temperature of 33 K, the mirror is made of gold-plated beryllium, which is capable of handling extreme cold better than glass. Beryllium contracts and deforms less than glass and remains more uniform in such temperatures.[113] For the same reason, the optics of theSpitzer Space Telescope are entirely built of beryllium metal.[114]
Beryllium is non-magnetic. Therefore, tools fabricated out of beryllium-based materials are used by naval or militaryexplosive ordnance disposal teams for work on or nearnaval mines, since these mines commonly havemagnetic fuzes.[116] They are also found in maintenance and construction materials nearmagnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines because of the high magnetic fields generated.[117]
Beryllium is commonly used in someneutron sources in laboratory devices in which relatively few neutrons are needed (rather than having to use a nuclear reactor or aparticle accelerator-poweredneutron generator). For this purpose, a target of beryllium-9 is bombarded with energetic alpha particles from aradioisotope such aspolonium-210,radium-226,plutonium-238, oramericium-241. In the nuclear reaction that occurs, a beryllium nucleus istransmuted into carbon-12, and one free neutron is emitted, traveling in about the same direction as the alpha particle was heading. Suchalpha decay-driven beryllium neutron sources, named"urchin" neutron initiators, were used in some earlyatomic bombs.[121] Neutron sources in which beryllium is bombarded withgamma rays from agamma decay radioisotope are also used to produce laboratory neutrons.[23]
Two CANDU fuel bundles: Each about 50 cm in length and 10 cm in diameter. Notice the small appendages on the fuel clad surfaces
Beryllium is used in fuel fabrication forCANDU reactors. The fuel elements have small appendages that are resistance brazed to the fuel cladding using an induction brazing process with Be as the braze filler material. Bearing pads are brazed in place to prevent contact between the fuel bundle and the pressure tube containing it, and inter-element spacer pads are brazed on to prevent element to element contact.[122]
The low weight and high rigidity of beryllium make it useful as a material for high-frequencyspeaker drivers. Because beryllium is expensive (many times more thantitanium), hard to shape due to its brittleness, and toxic if mishandled, berylliumtweeters are limited to high-end home,[125][126][127]pro audio, andpublic address applications.[128][129] Some high-fidelity products have been fraudulently claimed to be made of the material.[130]
Some high-endphonograph cartridges used beryllium cantilevers to improve tracking by reducing mass.[131]
Beryllium is a component of severaldental alloys.[135][136] Beryllium is used in X-ray windows because it is transparent to X-rays, allowing for clearer and more efficient imaging.[137] In medical imaging equipment, such as CT scanners and mammography machines, beryllium's strength and light weight enhance durability and performance.[138] Beryllium is used in analytical equipment for blood, HIV, and other diseases.[139] Beryllium alloys are used in surgical instruments, optical mirrors, and laser systems for medical treatments.[140][141]
Approximately 35 micrograms of beryllium is found in the average human body, an amount not considered harmful.[143] Beryllium is chemically similar tomagnesium and therefore can displace it fromenzymes, which causes them to malfunction.[143] Because Be2+ is a highly charged and small ion, it can easily get into many tissues and cells, where it specifically targets cell nuclei, inhibiting many enzymes, including those used for synthesizing DNA. Its toxicity is exacerbated by the fact that the body has no means to control beryllium levels, and once inside the body, beryllium cannot be removed.[144]
Chronic beryllium disease (CBD), orberylliosis, is apulmonary andsystemicgranulomatous disease caused by inhalation of dust or fumes contaminated with beryllium; either large amounts over a short time or small amounts over a long time can lead to this ailment. Symptoms of the disease can take up to five years to develop; about a third of patients with it die and the survivors are left disabled.[143] TheInternational Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) lists beryllium and beryllium compounds asCategory 1 carcinogens.[145]
Exposure to beryllium in the workplace can lead to a sensitized immune response, and over time development ofberylliosis.[149] NIOSH in the United States researches these effects in collaboration with a major manufacturer of beryllium products. NIOSH also conducts genetic research on sensitization and CBD, independently of this collaboration.[149]
Acute beryllium disease in the form ofchemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943. A survey found that about 5% of workers in plants manufacturingfluorescent lamps in 1949 in the United States had beryllium-related lung diseases.[150] Chronic berylliosis resemblessarcoidosis in many respects, and thedifferential diagnosis is often difficult. It killed some early workers in nuclear weapons design, such asHerbert L. Anderson.[151]
Beryllium may be found in coal slag. When the slag is formulated into an abrasive agent for blasting paint and rust from hard surfaces, the beryllium can become airborne and become a source of exposure.[152]
Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries, in the refining of beryllium metal and the melting of beryllium-containing alloys, in the manufacturing of electronic devices, and in the handling of other beryllium-containing material.[153]
Early researchers undertook the highly hazardous practice of identifying beryllium and its various compounds from its sweet taste. A modern test for beryllium in air and on surfaces has been developed and published as an international voluntary consensus standard, ASTM D7202. The procedure uses diluteammonium bifluoride for dissolution and fluorescence detection with beryllium bound to sulfonated hydroxybenzoquinoline, allowing up to 100 times more sensitive detection than the recommended limit for beryllium concentration in the workplace. Fluorescence increases with increasing beryllium concentration. The new procedure has been successfully tested on a variety of surfaces and is effective for the dissolution and detection of refractory beryllium oxide and siliceous beryllium in minute concentrations (ASTM D7458).[154][155] The NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods contains methods for measuring occupational exposures to beryllium.[156]
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^In a footnote onpage 169Archived 23 June 2016 at theWayback Machine of (Vauquelin, 1798), the editors write: "(1) La propriété la plus caractéristique de cette terre, confirmée par les dernières expériences de notre collègue, étant de former des sels d'une saveur sucrée, nous proposons de l'appelerglucine, de γλυκυς,doux, γλυκύ,vin doux, γλυκαιτω,rendre doux ...Note des Rédacteurs." ((1) The most characteristic property of this earth, confirmed by the recent experiments of our colleague [Vauquelin], being to form salts with a sweet taste, we propose to call itglucine from γλυκυς,sweet, γλυκύ,sweet wine, γλυκαιτω,to make sweet ...Note of the editors.)
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