| Bereza Kartuska | |
|---|---|
| Concentration camp | |
 Main building. | |
  Location of Bereza Kartuska within Poland | |
 Interactive map of Bereza Kartuska | |
| Coordinates | 52°33′N24°58′E / 52.550°N 24.967°E /52.550; 24.967 |
| Location | Bereza Kartuska,Polesie Voivodeship |
| Built by | Second Polish Republic |
| Operated by | Polish police force |
| Original use | Political and criminal prison |
| Operational | 1934–1939 |
| Inmates | National Democrats,communists, members of thePolish People's Party,Ukrainian andBelarusian nationalists |
| Number of inmates | More than 3,000 |
| Liberated by | Abandoned, 17 September 1939 |
52°33′N24°58′E / 52.550°N 24.967°E /52.550; 24.967
Bereza Kartuska Prison (Miejsce Odosobnienia w Berezie Kartuskiej, "Place of Isolation at Bereza Kartuska")[1] was operated by Poland'sSanation government from 1934 to 1939 inBereza Kartuska,Polesie Voivodeship (today, Biaroza,Belarus).[2][3][4][5] Because the inmates were detained without trial or conviction, it is considered aninternment camp[6][7][8] orconcentration camp.[9][10][11]
Bereza Kartuska Prison was established on 17 June 1934 by order of PresidentIgnacy Mościcki[12] to detain persons who were viewed by the Polish state as a "threat to security, peace, and social order"[12] or alternately to isolate and demoralizepolitical opponents of the Sanation government such asNational Democrats,communists, members of thePolish People's Party, andUkrainian andBelarusian nationalists. Prisoners were sent to the campon the basis of an administrative decision, withoutformal charges, judicial sanction, ortrial, and without the possibility ofappeal.[13] Prisoners were detained for a period of three months, with the possibility of indefinite extension.[14]
Detainees were expected to performpenal labour. Often prisoners weretortured, and at least 13 prisoners died.[13] Besides political prisoners, starting in October 1937 recidivists and financial criminals were also sent to the camp.[14] During theGerman invasion of Poland in September 1939, the camp guards fled on news of the German advance, and the prisoners were freed.[15]
It was created on July 12, 1934, in former Russian barracks and prison atBereza Kartuska on the authority of a June 17, 1934, order issued by Polish PresidentIgnacy Mościcki. The event that directly influenced Poland'sde facto dictator,Józef Piłsudski, to create the prison was theassassination of Polish Minister of Internal AffairsBronisław Pieracki on June 15, 1934, by theOrganization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).[16] It was intended to accommodate persons "whose activities or conduct give reason to believe that they threaten the public security, peace or order."[12] According to Piłsudski'sadiutant, Capt.Mieczysław Lepecki [pl], the idea to establish an "isolation camp" for violent extremists originated from Prime MinisterLeon Kozłowski during a meeting with Piłsudski, shortly after the attack on Pieracki. Piłsudski agreed to the proposal provided that the camp would exist for a maximum of one year.[17]
The Bereza Kartuska Prison was organized by the director of the Political Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs,Wacław Żyborski, and the head of that Department's Nationalities Section (Wydział Narodowościowy), ColonelLeon Jarosławski. The institution was later supervised by theGovernor ofPolesie Province, ColonelWacław Kostek-Biernacki.[18] In the view of some historians, Kostek-Biernacki did not serve ascommandant; they identify its commandants aspolice inspectorsBolesław Greffner (whose given name is sometimes stated as "Jan"), of Poznań, andJózef Kamala-Kurhański.[19] Officially, Bereza Kartuska was not a part of Poland's penitentiary system, and the staff was composed of policemen, sent there as a punishment, rather than professional prison guards.
Individuals were incarcerated at Bereza Kartuska byadministrative decision, without right of appeal, for three months, although this term was often extended while ColonelWacław Kostek-Biernacki served as its commander.[18] The average prisoner would spend 8 months in the camp.[20] In the first three years of its history, the camp incarcerated people perceived assubversives and political opponents of the rulingSanation regime.Recidivists andfinancial criminals were also detained starting from October 1937.[14] Citizens suspected of pro-German sympathies were first detained in Bereza in the middle 1938.[21] In the first days of theSeptember Campaign of 1939, Polish authorities started mass arrests of people suspected of such sympathies.[22] Some members of the German minority in Poland were detained in whole families, including women (previously never detained in the camp).[22]
The campde facto ceased to exist on the night of September 17–18, 1939 when, after learning about theSoviet invasion of Poland, the staff had abandoned it.[23] According to two reports, the departing policemen murdered some prisoners.[24]
According to the surviving documentation of the camp, more than 3,000 people were overall detained in Bereza Kartuska from July 1934 until August 29, 1939.[25] However, the camp's authorities stopped formally registering detainees in September 1939, after mass arrests began.[26] According to incomplete data from Soviet sources, at least 10,000 people had gone through the prison.[27]
Prisoners included members of theOrganization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN),Polish Communist Party (KPP) andNational Radical Camp (ONR), as well as members of thePeople's Party (SL) andPolish Socialist Party (PPS). The detainees includedBolesław Piasecki and, for some dozen days, the journalistStanisław Mackiewicz (the latter, paradoxically, a warm supporter of the prison's establishment). Also a number of Belarusians who had resistedPolonization found themselves in the camp.[28]
The first inmates—Polish ONR activists—arrived on July 17, 1934. A few days later, OUN activists arrived:Roman Shukhevych,Dmytro Hrytsai andVolodymyr Yaniv.[29] By August 1939, Ukrainians constituted 17 percent of prisoners.[30]
In April 1939, 38 members ofKarpacka Sicz organization were detained in the camp.[31] They were ethnic Ukrainians, previously residing in theCarpathian Ruthenia region ofCzechoslovakia, where they were attempting to create an independent Ukrainian state. After this region wasannexed by Hungary, Hungarian authorities deported them to Poland, whey they were sent to Bereza Kartuska. Unlike other prisoners, they didn't have to perform any labours and had the right to freely talk to each other in low voice.[31]
Reason for detention by percentage of inmates:[26]
| 1934 | 1935 | 1936 | 1937 | 1938 | I–VIII 1939 | Summary | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Communists | 70% | 66% | 100% | 73% | 39% | 50% | 55% |
| Far-right parties' members | 10% | 17% | - | - | - | - | 2% |
| Ukrainian nationalists | 30% | 17% | - | - | - | - | 4% |
| Peasant parties' activists | - | - | - | - | 1% | - | 1% |
| Nazism supporters | - | - | - | - | 1% | - | 1% |
| "Anti-state activists" (szkodnicy) | - | - | - | - | - | 1% | ≈0% |
| Karpacka Sicz members | - | - | - | - | - | 2% | ≈0% |
| Criminals | - | - | - | 23% | 55% | 41% | 35% |
| Financial criminals | - | - | - | 4% | 4% | 6% | 2% |
From 1934 to 1937, the facility usually housed 100–500 inmates at a time. In April 1938 the number went up to 800.[32] In early 1938, the Polish government suddenly increased the number of inmates by sending 4,500 Ukrainian nationalists, terrorists, and members ofOrganization of Ukrainian Nationalists to Bereza Kartuska without the right of appeal.[29]
Conditions were exceptionally harsh, and only one inmate managed to escape.[33] Only one suicide occurred; on 5 February 1939, inmate Dawid Cymerman slit his throat in a toilet.[34] The number of deaths in detention was kept artificially low by releasing prisoners who were in poor health.[35] According to Śleszyński, 13 inmates died during the facility's operation, most of them at a hospital inKobryń.[34][36] In other sources, the total number of deaths, is variously given as between 17 and 20.[37] This number is also repeated in recent sources; for example,Norman Davies inGod's Playground (1979) gives the number of deaths as 17.[38] Ukrainian historian,Viktor Idzio, states that according to official statistics, 176 men – by unofficial Polish statistics, 324 Ukrainians[clarification needed] – were murdered or tortured to death during questioning, or died from disease, while escaping, or disappeared without a trace. According to Idzio, most wereOUN members.[29]
OUN members who were incarcerated at Bereza Kartuska testified to the use oftorture. There were frequent beatings (with boards being placed against inmates' backs and struck with hammers),forced labor, constantharassment, the use ofsolitary confinement without provocation, punishment for inmates' use of theUkrainian language, etc.[29] By the time they were released from Bereza Kartuska, many Ukrainians had had their health destroyed or had died.Taras Bulba-Borovets, who later becameotaman of theUkrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), developedepilepsy as a result of his stay in Bereza Kartuska.[29]
Prisoners were accommodated within the main compound, in a three-story brick building. A small white structure served forsolitary confinement (inUkrainian, "kartser"; inPolish, "karcer"). South of the solitary-confinement structure was awell, and south of that was abathing area. The whole compound was encircled by an electrifiedbarbed-wire fence.[citation needed] Across a road from this compound were thecommandant's house and officers'barracks.[citation needed] In the prisoners' building, each cell initially held 15 inmates. There were no benches or tables. In 1938 the number of inmates per cell was increased to up to 70. The floors were of concrete and were constantly showered with water so that inmates could not sit.[29]
Kazimierz Baran [pl] wrote that "the rigour detectable in Beraza Kartuska camp can by no means be compared with the dreadful conditions of the Nazi or Soviet-organized labour camps".[39]
The Polish government called the institution "Miejsce Odosobnienia w Berezie Kartuskiej" ("Place of Isolation at Bereza Kartuska"). From the facility's inception, theSanation government's opponents openly criticized the legal basis for its establishment and operation, calling it a "concentration camp."[40] This term was also used by Western media sources such asThe Times, both during the interbellum[41] and immediately afterWorld War II.[42] It was later popularized bycommunist propaganda,[43] which cited the prison as evidence that Poland's prewar government had been a "fascist" regime.[44][45] In 2007, the Polish Embassy objected to the use of the term in amemorial plaque inParis for the Bereza Kartuska inmateAron Skrobek. Its objections were successful and the plaque instead described the facility as a seclusion camp.[46]
Modern scholarship has characterized the facility as a concentration camp,[47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55] includingYale University professorTimothy Snyder,[56] theUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum,[57] theLibrary of Congress,[58] PolishNobel Prize-winning authorCzesław Miłosz,[59] and historianKarol Modzelewski, who was political prisoner and one of the leaders of the democratic opposition in the communist Poland.[60]Ukrainian sources such as Kubijovych and Idzio representing the Ukrainian Nationalist camp of the interpretation of history also categorize Bereza Kartuska as a concentration camp.[61] Polish-American historianTadeusz Piotrowski who also calls it a concentration camp, notes that the establishment of the facility was a norm of its times, similar to other facilities where political opponents were locked up, often in an extrajudicial manner. (Like the giant German or Soviet networks of concentration camps, degrees of brutality and number of prisoners aside.)[38][62] Describing Bereza Kartuska as a concentration camp may be against thePolish Holocaust law, according to historianTomasz Stryjek [pl].[63]
Such threats [of prosecution under the memory law] also concern researchers who use the term "concentration camp" in relation to crimes committed by Polish state officials, consisting in creating conditions resulting in death from illness, starvation and exhaustion of political prisoners. It applies to camps in: Bereza Kartuska (1934-1 939), officially a "place of detention",Świętochłowice-Zgoda (in 1945, detaining mainly Germans and Silesians) andJaworzno (1945-1949, from 1947 used for Ukrainians and Lemkos deported under the "Vistula" action), called "labour camps" ( Łuszczyna 2017).
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