বাঙালি মুসলমান | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Total population | |
| 200 million (2013)[1] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 Bangladesh | 153,000,000 (2020 est.)[2] |
 India (West Bengal, Assam, and Tripura) | 35,000,000 (2011)[3][4][5][6][7] |
 Pakistan | 2,200,000[8][9] |
 Saudi Arabia | 2,000,000 (2021)[10] |
 United Arab Emirates | 700,000[11] |
 Great Britain | 596,189[a][12][13] |
 Oman | 130,000[14] |
 Qatar | 550,000[15] |
| Languages | |
| Bengali Arabic (liturgical) | |
| Religion | |
| PredominantlySunni Islam with aShia &Ahmadiyyah minority | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Bengali people,Bangladeshis | |
| Part of a series on |
| Bengalis |
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Bengali Muslims (Bengali:বাঙালি মুসলমান;pronounced[baŋalimusɔlman])[16][17] are adherents ofIslam who ethnically, linguistically and genealogically identify asBengalis. Comprising over 70% of the global Bengali population, they are the second-largest ethnic group among Muslims afterArabs.[18][19] Bengali Muslims make up the majority ofBangladesh's citizens, and are the largest religious minority in the Indian states ofWest Bengal,Tripura andAssam.[20]
They speak or identify theBengali language as theirmother tongue. The majority of Bengali Muslims areSunnis who follow theHanafi school of jurisprudence.
Due to its extensive trade contacts, Bengal has had a Muslim presence in the region since the early 8th century CE, but conquest of the Bengal region by the Delhi Sultanate brought Muslim rule to Bengal. The governors of the region soon broke away to form a Bengal Sultanate, which was a supreme power of the medieval Islamic East.[21] European traders identified the Bengal Sultanate as "the richest country to trade with".[22] The Sultans of Bengal promoted the development of Bengali as a language and the writing of Islamic literature in Bengali, paving the way for the development of a distinct Bengali Muslim culture, while many intellectuals and scholars from throughout the Muslim world migrated to Bengal.[23][17]
Although Islamic culture had long developed in Bengal, it was after the Mughal Conquest of Bengal in the early 17th century and their subsequent attempt to expand cultivation in the still-forested eastern part of Bengal that a majority of Bengal would develop an Islamic identity. Mughal revenue policies encouraged Muslim adventurers to organise the development of agricultural societies among indigenous peoples with weak ties to Hinduism, who increasingly blended aspects of Islamic cosmology with folk religious worldviews and practices. Thus the majority of the rural population of central, northern and eastern Bengal would develop an Islamic identity, and the majority of Bengali Muslims today descend from these indigenous peoples.[24] This expansion of cultivation also led to tremendous economic growth, and the increasingly-independent Bengal Subah would be one of the wealthiest regions in the world. Bengal viceroyMuhammad Azam Shah assumed the imperial throne. Mughal Bengal became increasingly independent under theNawabs of Bengal in the 18th century.[25]
After the East India Company conquered Bengal from the Mughals in the 18th century, they implemented the Permanent Settlement, which led to the creation of a new class of mostly upper-caste Hindu Zamindars, while putting additional burdens on the peasants, who were largely Muslims. Inspired by increasingly available travel to Arabia, religious revivalists such as Titumir and Haji Shariatullah urged an abandonment of perceived non-Islamic folk practices among the lower class Bengali Muslims, and later organised them in agitations against the zamindars and the East India Company.[24]
In Bengal, the British Government organised the1905 Partition of Bengal, which created a new Muslim-dominated province ofEastern Bengal and Assam, although this would be reversed in 1911.[26] Starting in the early 20th century, British efforts to bring what they considered 'waste' land under cultivation resulted in the large-scale immigration of Bengali Muslim peasants toLower Assam andArakan in what would become Myanmar.[27] Increasingly in the early 20th century, tensions between Bengali Muslims and Hindus, particularly Bengali Muslim resentment of landowning Hindus, resulted in widespread support among Bengali Muslims for a separate Pakistan, which near Partition resulted in widespread communal violence.[28] After thePartition of India in 1947, they comprised the demographic majority of Pakistan until the independence ofEast Pakistan (historicEast Bengal) as Bangladesh in1971.
ABengali is a person of ethnic and linguistic heritage from theBengal region in South Asia speaking theIndo-AryanBengali language.Islam arrived in the first millennium and influenced the nativeBengali culture. The influx of Persian, Turkic,Arab andMughal settlers contributed further diversity to the cultural development of the region.[24] The Muslim population in Bengal further rose with the agricultural and administrative reforms during the Mughal period, particularly in eastern Bengal.[24][29][30] Today, most Bengali Muslims live in the modern country of Bangladesh, the world's fourth largest Muslim-majority country, along with the Indian states of West Bengal and Assam.[20]
The majority of Bengali Muslims areSunnis who follow theHanafi school of jurisprudence. There are also minorities ofShias andAhmadiyas, as well as people who identify asnon-denominational (or "just a Muslim").[31]
Rice-cultivating communities existed in Bengal since the second millennium BCE. The region was home to a large agriculturalist population, marginally influenced byDharmic religions.[32]Buddhism influenced the region in the first millennium. The Bengali language developed fromApabhramsa,Sanskrit,Magadhi Prakrit between the 7th and 10th centuries. It once formed a single Indo-Aryan branch withAssamese andOriya, before the languages became distinct.[33]
Centuries prior to the advent of Islam into the region, Bengal was a major center of Buddhism on the Indian Subcontinent.[34] The area was under the rule of the BuddhistPala Empire for several centuries until its collapse and subsequent conquest by the HinduSena Empire in the 1170s.[34] This was an era of significant Buddhist-Brahmin religious conflict as they represented diametrically opposite camps in the Dharmic tradition with the Buddhist focus on equality threatening the Brahmin caste-based power structure.[35][36] In the preceding centuries Buddhism underwent a slow decline as Hindu kingdom gradually enveloped Buddhists states in the area and began of process of "de-Buddification" manifested by the reframing of Buddhist figures as Hindu avatars and the reincorporation of resistant Buddhist subjects into lower castes in society. As the Pala Empire's base of power was in Northern and Eastern Bengal, it is likely that these were areas with large Buddhist majorities which were likely heavily subjugated the Sena Empire.
Historical evidences suggest the early Muslim traders and merchants visited Bengal while traversing theSilk Road in the first millennium.[37] One of the earliest mosques in South Asia is under excavation in northern Bangladesh, indicating the presence of Muslims in the area around the lifetime ofMuhammad.[38] Starting in the 9th century, Muslim merchants increased trade with Bengali seaports.[39] Islam first appeared in Bengal during Pala rule, as a result of increased trade between Bengal and the ArabAbbasid Caliphate.[40] Coins of the Abbasid Caliphate have been discovered in many parts of the region.[41] The people ofSamatata, in southeastern Bengal, during the 10th-century were of various religious backgrounds. During this time, Arab geographerAl-Masudi, who authoredThe Meadows of Gold, travelled to the region and noticed a Muslim community of inhabitants.[42]
In addition to trade, Islam was also being introduced to the people of Bengal through the migration of Sufi missionaries prior to conquest. The earliest known Sufi missionaries were Syed Shah Surkhul Antia and his students, most notablyShah Sultan Rumi, in the 11th century. Rumi settled in present-dayNetrokona, Mymensingh where he influenced the local ruler and population to embrace Islam.
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While Bengal was under theHinduSena Empire, subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region.[43]Bakhtiyar Khalji, aTurkic Muslim general, defeated kingLakshman Sen in 1206 CE and annexed large parts of Bengal to theDelhi Sultanate. Khalji also mounted aninvasion of Tibet. Following this initial conquest, an influx of missionaries arrived in Bengal and many Bengalis began to adopt Islam as their way of life.Sultan Balkhi andShah Makhdum Rupos settled in the present-dayRajshahi Division in northern Bengal, preaching to the communities there. A community of 13 Muslim families headed byBurhanuddin also existed in the northeastern Hindu city ofSrihatta (Sylhet), claiming their descendants to have arrived fromChittagong.[44] By 1303, hundreds of Sufi preachers led byShah Jalal aided the Muslim rulers in Bengal toconquer Sylhet, turning the town into Jalal's headquarters for religious activities. Following the conquest, Jalal disseminated his followers across different parts of Bengal to spread Islam, and became a household name among Bengali Muslims.
The establishment of a single unitedBengal Sultanate in 1352 byShamsuddin Ilyas Shah finally gave rise to a"Bengali" socio-linguistic identity.[45] TheIlyas Shahi dynasty acknowledgedMuslim scholarship, and this transcended ethnic background.Usman Serajuddin, also known asAkhi Siraj Bengali, was a native ofGaur in western Bengal and became the Sultanate's court scholar during Ilyas Shah's reign.[46][47][48] Alongside Persian and Arabic, the sovereign Sunni Muslim nation-state also enabled the language of the Bengali people to gain patronage and support, contrary to previous states which exclusively favouredSanskrit,Pali andPersian.[23][49] The converted SultanJalaluddin Muhammad Shah funded the construction of Islamic seminaries as far asMecca andMadina in the Middle East. The people ofArabia came to know these institutions asal-Madaris al-Bangaliyyah (Bengali madrasas).
The Bengal Sultanate was a melting pot of Muslim political, mercantile and military elites. During the 14th century, Islamic kingdoms stretched fromMuslim Spain in the west to Bengal in the east. Moroccan travelerIbn Battuta's diary is one of the best known accounts of the prelude to the Bengal Sultanate.[50] Ibn Battuta visited Bengal during the reign of SultanFakhruddin Mubarak Shah, a rebel governor of the Delhi Sultanate who established a city state inSonargaon. At the time, Bengal was divided into the three city states of Sonargaon,Satgaon andLakhnauti. In 1352, the three city states were united by Ilyas Shah into a single, unitary, independent Bengal Sultanate. The creation of the Bengal Sultanate sparked severalBengal-Delhi Wars, which resulted in Delhi recognizing Bengal's independence. TheIlyas Shahi dynasty consolidated Bengali statehood, the economy and diplomatic relations. A network of Mint Towns - provincial capitals which produced the Sultan's sovereign currency called thetaka - was established across Bengal.[51] The Bengali state followed the Persian model of statecraft. Muslims from other parts of the world were imported for military, bureaucratic and household services.[52] These immigrants included Turks from upper India who were originally recruited in Central Asia; as well as Abyssinians imported via East Africa into the Bengali port of Chittagong.[52] A highly commercialized and monetized economy evolved.Islamic architecture was introduced on a major scale. A huge mosque called theAdina Mosque was built following the design of theGreat Mosque of Damascus. A distinct Bengali Muslim architectural style developed, withterracotta andstone buildings showing a fusion of Persian and Bengali elements.[53][54] Mosques included two categories, including multi-domed rectangular structures and single-domed square structures. A distinct style of Bengalimihrabs,minbars, terracottaarabesque, anddo-chala roofs developed; this influence also spread to other regions.
The Bengal Sultanate was ruled by five dynastic periods, with each period have a particular ethnic identity. The Ilyas Shahi dynasty was ofTurkic origins. It was replaced by the Bengali-origin dynasty ofJalaluddin Muhammad Shah andShamsuddin Ahmad Shah for a few decades before being restored
Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah was born as Jadu, the son of Hindu KingRaja Ganesha. He later ruled most of Bengal as a converted Muslim. He maintained a good rapport with non-Muslims in his kingdom. According to an interpretation of a Sanskritsloka by D. C. Bhattacharya, Jalaluddin appointed Rajyadhar, a Hindu, as the commander of his army. He gained support ofMuslim scholars –Ulama and theSheikhs. He reconstructed and repaired the mosques and other religious architectures destroyed by Raja Ganesha.[55][56]
In the 1490s, a series ofAbyssinian generals took turns in becoming the Sultan of Bengal.[57][58] They were succeeded by theHussain Shahi dynasty which was ofArab origin. They were in turn replaced by thePashtun rulers of theSuri dynasty, who first acted as regional governors before restoring Bengali independence. The last dynasty, theKarrani dynasty, was also of Pashtun origin. The sultanate period saw a flourishing of Islamic scholarship and the development ofBengali literature. Scholars, writers and poets of sultanate-era Bengal includedUsman Serajuddin,Alaul Haq,Sheikh Nur Qutb Alam,Alaol,Shah Muhammad Sagir,Abdul Hakim,Syed Sultan, Qadi Ruknu'd-Din Abu Hamid Muhammad bin Muhammad al-'Amidi, Abu Tawwama,Syed Ibrahim Danishmand, Syed Arif Billah Muhammad Kamel and Syed Muhammad Yusuf among others. Bengal's tradition ofPersian prose was acknowledged byHafez. TheDobhashi tradition sawBengali transliteration ofArabic and Persian words in Bengali texts to illustrate Islamic epics and stories.
During the independent sultanate period, Bengal forged strong diplomatic relations with empires outside the subcontinent. The most notable of these relationships was withMing China and its emperorYongle. At least a dozen embassies were exchanged between China and Bengal.[59] The Sultan of Bengal even gifted an East African giraffe to the Emperor of China as a tribute to China-Bengal relations. The Chinese Muslim admiralZheng He visited Bengal as an envoy of the Emperor of China. Bengali ships transported the embassies ofSumatra,Brunei andMalacca to the port ofCanton. China and theTimurid ruler ofHerat mediated an end to theBengal Sultanate-Jaunpur Sultanate War. The Sultan of Bengal also acknowledged the nominal authority of theAbbasid caliph inCairo.Portuguese India was the first European state entity to establish relations with the Bengal Sultanate. The Bengal Sultan permitted the opening of thePortuguese settlement in Chittagong.
Soon after its creation, the Bengal Sultanate sent the first Muslim army intoNepal. Its forces reached as far asVaranasi while pursuing a retreating Delhi Sultan.[60][61]
Arakan was the most volatile neighbor of the Bengal Sultanate. In 1428, the forces of Bengal restoredMin Saw Mun as the king of Arakan after he fled to the court of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah. According to traditional Arakanese history, Arakan became a tributary state of Bengal and its kings adopted Muslim titles to fashion themselves after Bengali Sultans.[62] Arakan later shrugged off Bengali hegemony and restored full independence. It later invaded southeastern Bengal several times, sometimes with success and sometimes unsuccessfully. Arakan continued to mint its coins following the model of Bengali tanka for 300 years, even after the dissolution of the Bengal Sultanate. A total of 16 Arakanese kings used Muslim titles.[62] Arakan forcefully deported thousands of Bengali Muslims and Hindus during its invasions and collusion with the Portuguese. Deportees included the poetAlaol. As a result, the Bengali minority in Arakan developed a distinct Arakanese identity and became influential elites in Arakanese society. Arakanese Muslims, known today asRohingya people, trace their ancestry to the period of Bengali influence in Arakan.
The Bengal Sultanate also counted Tripura as a vassal state. Bengal restored the throne of Tripura by helpingRatna Manikya I to assume the throne.[63][64][65] The Bengal Sultanate controlledOdisha at various points since the reign ofIlyas Shah.[66] During the reign ofAlauddin Hussain Shah, Bengal became an expanding regional empire. Under Hussain Shah, Bengali territory covered Arakan, Assam, Tripura, Orissa, Bihar and Jaunpur.[67][68] Hussain Shah minted coins with the proclamation "conqueror of Kamrupa, Kamata, Jajnagar and Orissa".[69] ThePratapgarh Kingdom came under Bengalisuzerainty.[70][71] The Hindu kingdom ofChandradwip was annexed by the Hussain Shahi dynasty.[72][73] In 1498, the Hussain Shahi dynasty dispatched an army underShah Ismail Ghazi to conquer theKamata Kingdom. The Bengal forces overthrew theKhen dynasty. Bengali control of Assam extended into theBrahmaputra Valley and up toHajo.[74] The invasions of the Bengal Sultanate into Assam provided the basis for the formation of Assamese Muslims.
Bengali ships dominated theBay of Bengal and were the largest ships in theIndian andPacific oceans. A royal vessel from Bengal could accommodate three tribute missions- from Bengal, Brunei and Sumatra- and was evidently the only vessel capable of such a task. European travelers likeLudovico di Varthema,Duarte Barbosa andTomé Pires wrote about the presence of a large number of wealthy Bengali merchants and shipowners in Malacca.[75] The trade between Bengal and theMaldives, based on rice andcowry shells, was probably done on Arab-stylebaghlah ships.
The Chinese Muslim envoyMa Huan wrote about a flourishing shipbuilding industry and Bengal's significant seaborne trade. Themuslin trade in Bengal, the production of silk and the development of several other crafts were indicated in Ma Huan's list of items exported from Bengal to China. Bengali shipping co-existed with Chinese shipping until the latter withdrew from the Indian Ocean in the mid-15th-century. Bengali port cities likeChittagong andSatgaon were possiblyentrepots for importing and re-exporting goods to China.[76]
TheMughal Empire eventually controlled the region under itsBengal Subah viceregal province. TheMughal Emperors considered Bengal their most prized province.Emperor Akbar redeveloped theBengali calendar.[77] In the 16th-century, manyUlama of the Bengali Muslim intelligentsia migrated to other parts of the subcontinent as teachers and instructors ofIslamic knowledge such as Sheikh Ali Sher Bengali toAhmedabad, Usman Bengali toSambhal and Yusuf Bengali toBurhanpur.[78]
The process of Islamization of eastern Bengal, now Bangladesh, is not fully understood due to limited documentation from the 1200s to 1600s, the period during which Islamization is believed to have occurred.[79] There are numerous theories about how Islam spread in region; however, the overwhelming evidence is strongly suggestive of a gradual transition of the local population from Buddhism, Hinduism and other indigenous religions to Islam starting in the thirteenth century facilitated by Sufi missionaries (such as Shah Jalal in Sylhet for example) and later by Mughal agricultural reforms centered around Sufi missions.[80]
The factors facilitating conversion to Islam from Buddhism, Hinduism and indigenous religions, again is not fully understood. Lack of primary sources from that era have resulted in various hypotheses.[80] Generally modern prevailing hypotheses about the early stages of Islamification of East Bengal focus on Sufi missionaries capitalizing on disaffected Buddhists and other indigenous groups following the initial conquest of the area by the Brahmin and Kshatriya dominated Sena Empire followed a few decades later by the arrival ofBakhtiyar Khalji of the Delhi Sultanate in the early 1200s and the later agrarian reforms of the Mughal Empire in the 1500s.[81]
A few decades following the Sena Conquest of the region, the Sena, themselves, were conquered by Bakhtiyar Khalji opening up the region to a greater influx of Sufi missionaries. This hypothesis would explain why the Islam spread faster in East Bengal than West Bengal.[81] Essentially, East Bengal had a large Buddhist population compared to West Bengal.[81] The conquest of the area by Hindu kingdoms lead to the subjugation of Buddhists in the region. With the Turkic conquest, came the arrival of Sufi missionaries who were more successful at converting the largely disaffected Buddhist East Bengal versus the largely Hindu regions of West Bengal.[81]
A few centuries later theagrarian reforms of the Mughal Empire accelerated conversion and population growth across Bangladesh by creating a system of farming villages centered around Sufi missions.[82][83] The Mughals granted landless peasants land around these missions in order to accelerate development of the fertile Ganges plain. The lead to greater concentrations of people in the area with more opportunities for Sufi missionaries to preach Islam.[82][84] The projects were most evident in theBhati region of East Bengal, the most fertile part of the delta.[85]
Although the timeline is still debated, a popular theory posed by historian Richard Eaton poses that the Islamization of northern and eastern Bengal occurred in earnest after the Mughal conquest. At the time of the Mughal conquest of Bengal, most of East and North Bengal was still covered by dense forests and inhabited by indigenous communities who were marginally influenced by Dharmic religions and practiced shifting cultivation. The Hindu descendants of these indigenous communities are today calledNamasudras andPoundras in central and eastern Bengal, andRajbanshis in north Bengal.[85] The Ganga River had just shifted to its present course along the Padma River channel, opening up these jungles for economic and agricultural development. To exploit this newfound opportunity, the Mughals made large numbers of land grants to individuals to develop the land. Although some of these pioneers were Hindu, the vast majority were Muslims. These pioneers would go into the forests and organise the indigenous inhabitants to clear the land and practice wet rice cultivation. Thus the economic centre of Bengal shifted from the drier western part to the more fertile east, and East Bengal became the economic engine of the province.[85]
Since most of these pioneers were Muslim, who often were subcontracted by Hindu merchants, the communities they formed developed around village mosques and the indigenous communities became more and more influenced by Islam.[85] And often after the deaths of these pioneers, they were revered aspirs and their shrines became associated with mystical powers. Moreover Islamic literature which told Islamic stories in settings reminiscent of East Bengal made it easier for the locals to identify with Islamic figures. Thus gradually indigenous communities slowly began to identify more and more with Islamic culture, but blended it with their original folk culture to a great extent as very few literate Muslims were giving them instruction on Islamic practice. Thus the majority of East Bengal began to identify as Muslims, and their spiritual culture became a mixture of Islamic and indigenous folk traditions which was very distinct from the Islam practiced by the aristocracy. However the southwestern, northern and eastern eges of Bhati were still largely ruled by Hindu kings, and so a significant fraction of the indigenous population here became more influenced by Hindu ideals and developed into a variety of caste groups.[85]
According to historian Richard M. Eaton, Islam became the religion of theplough in theBengal delta.[21] Islam's emergence in the region was intimately tied with agriculture.[82] The delta was the most fertile region in the empire. Mughal development projects cleared forests and established thousands of Sufi-led villages, which became industrious farming and crafting communities.
This made East Bengal a thrivingmelting pot with strong trade and cultural networks. It was the most prosperous part of the subcontinent.[84][86] East Bengal became the center of the Muslim population in the eastern subcontinent and corresponds to modern-day Bangladesh.[85]
According to the 1881 Census of Bengal, Muslims constituted a bare majority of the population of Bengal proper (50.2 percent compared with the Hindus at 48.5 percent). However, in the eastern part of Bengal, Muslims were thick on the ground. The proportions of Muslims in Rajshahi, Dhaka and Chittagong divisions were 63.2, 63.6 and 67.9 percent respectively. The debate draws on the writings of some late nineteenth-century authors, but in its current form was initially formulated in 1963 by M.A. Rahim. Rahim suggested that a significant proportion of Bengal's Muslims were not Hindu converts but were descendants of 'aristocratic' immigrants from various parts of the Muslim world. Specifically, he estimated that in 1770, of about 10.6 million Muslims in Bengal, 3.3 million (about 30 percent) had 'foreign blood'.[87] In the late 1980s Richard Eaton, in a book and a series of papers, raised awkward questions about the social liberation theory of conversion from Hinduism to Islam that have yet to be fully addressed, further endorsing Rahim's argument.[88] In the late 19th century, when the first census was conducted onBengal region in the year of (1872), it was found that the number of Hindus are at (18m) and Muslims at (17.5m) were almost the same.[89] According to the 1872 Census, only 1.52% or say 2.66 lakhs of the Bengali Muslim population claimed foreign ancestry.[89][90][91]
The Bengal region wasannexed by theEast India Company (EIC) in 1757. In the following decades, Bengalis led numerous revolts againstCompany rule. In the early 19th century,Titumir led a peasant uprising against the East India Company. Meanwhile, the Bengali MuslimHaji Shariatullah led theFaraizi movement, which advocatedIslamic revivalism.[92] The Faraizis sought to create acaliphate and cleanse the region's Muslim society of what they deemed "un-Islamic practices". They were successful in galvanising the Bengali peasantry against the EIC. However, the movement experienced a crackdown after the suppression of theIndian Rebellion of 1857[93] and lost impetus after the death of Haji Shariatullah's sonDudu Miyan.[92]
After 1870, Muslims began a seeking British-style education in increasingly larger numbers. Under the leadership ofSir Syed Ahmed Khan the promotion the English language amongMuslims of India also influenced Bengali Muslim society.[30] Social and cultural leaders among Bengali Muslims during this period includedMunshi Mohammad Meherullah, who countered Christian missionaries,[94] writersIsmail Hossain Siraji andMir Mosharraf Hossain; and feministsNawab Faizunnesa andRokeya Sakhawat Hossain.
A precursor to the modern state of Bangladesh was the province ofEastern Bengal and Assam inBritish India. The province was created on 16 October 1905 by theViceroy of IndiaLord Curzon. The province covered present-day Bangladesh,northeastern India and a part of West Bengal. It had aBengali Muslim majority.Dacca, the former Mughal capital of Bengal, was declared by the British as the capital of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The province was established through thefirst partition of Bengal. The British government cited administrative reasons for the creation of the new province. It promised increased investment in education and the economy of the new province. The partition galvanizedMuslim nationalism in South Asia and led to the formation of theAll India Muslim League in Dacca in 1906. It also stoked anti-Muslim sentiment and anti-British sentiment among Hindus. Growing opposition from theIndian National Congress, which accused the British of adivide and rule policy, caused the British government to reconsider the new provincial geography. During theDelhi Durbar in 1911, KingGeorge V announced that provinces would once again be reorganized. The first partition of Bengal was annulled; while Calcutta lost its status as the imperial capital of India. The imperial capital was shifted to New Delhi; while Calcutta became the capital of a reunited, albeit smaller, Bengal province. Assam was made a separate province. Orissa and Bihar were also separated from Bengal. As a compensation for Dacca, the British government established auniversity for the city in 1921.
During the short lifespan of the province, school enrollment increased by 20%. New subjects were introduced into the college curriculum, including Persian, Sanskrit, mathematics, history and algebra. All towns became connected by an inter-district road network. The population of the capital city Dacca rose by 21% between 1906 and 1911.[26]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the British promoted the settlement of Muslim cultivators from densely populated East Bengal to farm untilled lands in Assam and other places. Therefore large numbers of Bengali Muslims from Mymensingh, Pabna and Rangpur districts were incentivized to come to lower Assam where there was cheap land available.[95]
An important moment in the history of Bengaliself-determination was theLahore Resolution in 1940, which was promoted by politicianA. K. Fazlul Huq. The resolution initially called for the creation of asovereign state in the "Eastern Zone" ofBritish India.[28] However, its text was later changed by the top leadership of theMuslim League. The Prime Minister of BengalHuseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy proposed an independent, undivided, sovereign "Free State of Bengal" in 1947.[96] Despite calls from liberal Bengali Muslim League leaders for an independentUnited Bengal, theBritish government moved forward with thePartition of Bengal in 1947. TheRadcliffe Line madeEast Bengal a part of theDominion of Pakistan. It was later renamed asEast Pakistan, withDhaka as its capital.
TheEast Pakistan Awami Muslim League was formed in Dhaka in 1949.[97] The organisation's name was later secularised as theAwami League in 1955 with the support oMaulana Bhasani.[98] The party was supported by the Bengalibourgeoisie, agriculturalists, the middle class, and theintelligentsia.[99]
SirKhawaja Nazimuddin,Mohammad Ali of Bogra, andH. S. Suhrawardy, all of whom were Bengali Muslims, each served as Pakistan's prime minister during the 1950s; however, all three were deposed by the military-industrial complex in West Pakistan. TheBengali language movement in 1952 received strong support from Islamic groups, including theTamaddun Majlish.Bengali nationalism increased in East Pakistan during the 1960s, particularly with theSix point movement for autonomy. The rise of pro-democracy and pro-independence movements in East Pakistan, withSheikh Mujibur Rahman as the principal leader, led to theBangladesh Liberation War in 1971.
Bangladesh was founded as a secular Muslim majority nation.[100] In 1977, however, PresidentZiaur Rahman, trying to consolidate his power under martial law, removed secularism from the constitution and replaced it with "a commitment to the values of Islam."[101] In 2010, theBangladesh Supreme Court reaffirmed secular principles in the constitution.[102]
Historical Islamic kingdoms that existed in Bengal employed several clever technologies in numerous areas such as architecture, agriculture, civil engineering, water management, etc. The creation of canals and reservoirs was a common practice for the sultanate. New methods of irrigation were pioneered by the Sufis. Bengali mosque architecture featured terracotta, stone, wood and bamboo, with curved roofs, corner towers and multiple domes. During the Bengal Sultanate, a distinct regional style flourished which featured no minarets, but had richly designedmihrabs andminbars as niches.[103]
Islamic Bengal had a long history of textile weaving, including export ofmuslin during the 17th and 18th centuries. Today, the weaving ofJamdani is classified byUNESCO as anintangible cultural heritage.[104][105]
Modern science was begun in Bengal during the period of British colonial rule. Railways were introduced in 1862, making Bengal one of the earliest regions in the world to have a rail network.[106] For the general population, opportunities for formal science education remained limited. The colonial government and the Bengali elite established several institutes for science education. TheNawabs of Dhaka established Ahsanullah School of Engineering which later became theBangladesh University of Engineering and Technology.[107]Qazi Azizul Haque pioneeredfingerprint classification.
In the second half of the 20th century, the Bengali Muslim AmericanFazlur Rahman Khan became one of the most important structural engineers in the world, helping design the world's tallest buildings.[108] Another Bengali Muslim German-American,Jawed Karim, was the co-founder of YouTube.[109]
In 2016, the modernist Bait-ur-Rouf Mosque, inspired by the Bengal Sultanate-style of buildings, won theAga Khan Award for Architecture.[110]
Bengali Muslims constitute the world's second-largest Muslim ethnicity (after the Arab world) and the largest Muslim community in South Asia.[111] An estimated 153 million Bengali Muslims live inBangladesh as of 2020, where Islam commands the demographic majority.[2] The Indian state ofWest Bengal is home to an estimated 23-24 million Bengali Muslims as per 2021 estimation, rest 6-7 million Muslims are Urdu and Surjapuri speaking Muslims.[3] Two districts in West Bengal – Murshidabad andMaldah have a Muslim majority andNorth Dinajpur has a plurality.[112] The Indian state ofAssam has over 9 million Bengali Muslims out of 13 million Muslim population in Assam.[4] Nine out of thirty-three districts in Assam have a Muslim majority.[113][114][115][116][117]Tripura, a north-eastern state of India has around 3.8 lakh Bengali Muslim population, or say 9% as of 2021.[118] TheRohingya community in westernMyanmar have significant Bengali Muslim heritage.[119]
A large Bengali Muslimdiaspora is found in theArab states of the Persian Gulf, which are home to several million expatriate workers from South Asia. A more well-established diaspora also resides in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, andPakistan. The first Bengali Muslim settlers in the United States were ship jumpers who settled inHarlem, New York andBaltimore, Maryland in the 1920s and 1930s.[120]
Surnames in Bengali Muslim society reflect the region's cosmopolitan history. They are mainly ofArabic andPersian origin, with a minority of Bengali surnames.
Zainul Abedin, who's better known asShilpacharya (Master of Art) was a prominent painter. His famine sketches of the 1940s are his most remarkable works of all time.
The unique trend ofrickshaw art started from major cities of Bangladesh likeRajshahi andDhaka and took its own style in each district.Chittagong being a more pious city than Dhaka mostly had floral or scenery art whereasCumilla has plain rickshaws with beautiful blue and green hoods, on which are sewn an appliqué of a minaret or floral design enshrining the word "Allah" which means "God" in Arabic. Rickshaw and rickshaw painting of Bangladesh are listed as 'intangible heritage' by UNESCO. As a people's craft, of Bengal cloth architecture has seen transformation in the past decade for open-air public functions such as melas and religious gatherings likeurs andwaz-mahfil andEidgahs for Eid prayers.[121]
ThePatua of Bangladesh are a unique community, in that their traditional occupation is the painting which is known asPatachitra and modelling of Hindu idols, yet many of them are Muslims. Gazir Pata (scroll ofGazi Pir) is the most famous scroll painting made by BengaliPatuas.[122]
The weaving industry of Bengal has prospered with the help of the Muslims natives. The Bengali originJamdani is believed to be a fusion of the ancient cloth-making techniques of Bengal with the muslins produced by Bengali Muslims of Dhaka since the 14th century. Jamdani is the most expensive product of traditional Bengali looms since it requires the most lengthy and dedicated work. The traditional art of weaving jamdani was declared aUNESCOIntangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2013[123][124][125] and Bangladesh receivedgeographical indication (GI) status for Jamdani Sari in 2016.
Sheikh Zainuddin was a prominent Bengali Muslim artist in the 18th century during the colonial period. His works were inspired by the style of Mughal courts.[126]
An indigenous style of Islamic architecture flourished in Bengal during the medieval Sultanate period.[127] Traditional Bengali Islamic architecture includes elements like brick,floral terracotta andstone craftsmanship. Mosques with multiple domes are proliferated in the region. Bengali Islamic architecture emerged as a synthesis of Bengali, Persian, Byzantine, and Mughal elements.
TheIndo-Saracenic style influenced Islamic architecture in South Asia during the British Raj. Notable examples of this style isCurzon Hall andHigh Court Building in Dhaka.
East Pakistan was the center of the Bengali modernist movement started byMuzharul Islam. Many renowned global architects worked in the region during the 1960s, which are still prevalent in modern-dayBangladesh.
Sufi spiritual traditions are central to the Bengali Muslim way of life. The most common Sufi ritual is theDhikr, the practice of repeating the names of God after prayers. Sufi teachings regard theMuhammad as the primary perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God.[128] Sufism is regarded as the individual internalization and intensification of the Islamic faith and practice. The Sufis played a vital role in developing Bengali Muslim society during the medieval period. Historic Sufi missionaries are regarded assaints, includingShah Jalal,Khan Jahan Ali,Shah Amanat,Shah Makhdum Rupos and Khwaja Enayetpuri. Theirmausoleums are focal points for charity, religious congregations, and festivities.
Baul is a Bengali mendicant folk sect influenced by concepts ofSufism. Baul songs may be sung at Baul akhdas or in the open air. At akhdas, songs are sung in the style ofhamd (song in praise of God),ghazal ornat (song in praise of theProphet Muhammad). Baul singers often play instruments such asektara,dugdugi,khamak,dholak,sarinda, anddotara.[129]
As part of theconversion process, asyncretic version of mystical Sufi Islam was historically prevalent in medieval and early modern Bengal. The Islamic concept oftawhid was diluted into the veneration ofHindu folk deities, who were now regarded aspirs.[130] Folk deities such asShitala (goddess ofsmallpox) andOladevi (goddess ofcholera) were worshipped as pirs among the poorer sections of Muslim society. These practices have almost entirely died out with the spread of Islamic revivalism throughout regions where Bengali Muslims live.[24]
Bengali Muslims maintain their indigenous language with its nativescript.[131] This tradition is similar to that of Central Asian andChinese Muslims.
Bengali evolved as the most easterly branch of theIndo-European languages.[citation needed] TheBengal Sultanate promoted the literary development of Bengali over Sanskrit, apparently to solidify their political legitimacy among the local populace. Bengali was the primary vernacular language of the Sultanate.[132] Bengali borrowed a considerable amount of vocabulary fromArabic andPersian. Under the Mughal Empire, considerable autonomy was enjoyed in the Bengali literary sphere.[133][134] The Bengali Language Movement of 1952 was a key part of East Pakistan's nationalist movement. It is commemorated annually by UNESCO asInternational Mother Language Day on 21 February.
While proto-Bengali emerged during the pre-Islamic period, the Bengali literary tradition crystallised during the Islamic period. As Persian and Arabic were prestige languages, they significantly influencedvernacular Bengali literature. The first efforts to popularise Bengali among Muslim writers was by the Sufi poetNur Qutb Alam.[135][136] The poet established theRikhta tradition which saw poems written in half Persian and half colloquial Bengali. The invocation tradition saw Bengali Muslim poets re-adapting Indian epics by replacing invocations of Hindu gods and goddesses with figures of Islam. The romantic tradition was pioneered byShah Muhammad Sagir, whose work onYusuf and Zulaikha was widely popular among the people of Bengal.[137] Other notable romantic works includedLayla Madjunn by Bahram Khan andHanifa Kayrapari by Sabirid Khan.[135] TheDobhashi tradition features the use of Arabic and Persian vocabulary in Bengali texts to illustrate Muslim contexts.[135] Medieval Bengali Muslim writers producedepic poetry and elegies, such asRasul Vijay of Shah Barid,Nabibangsha ofSyed Sultan,Janganama ofAbdul Hakim andMaktul Hussain of Mohammad Khan.Cosmology was a popular subject among Sufi writers.[138] In the 17th century, Bengali Muslim writers such as such asAlaol found refuge inArakan where he produced his epic,Padmavati.[137]
Bengal was also a major center ofPersian literature. Several newspapers and thousands of books, documents and manuscripts were published in Persian for 600 years. The Persian poetHafez dedicated an ode to the literature of Bengal while corresponding withSultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah.[139]
The first Bengali Muslim novelist wasMir Mosharraf Hossain in the 19th century. The highly acclaimed poetry of Kazi Nazrul Islam espoused spiritual rebellion against fascism and oppression. Nazrul also wrote Bengalighazals.Begum Rokeya was a pioneering Bengali female writer who publishedSultana's Dream, one of the earliest examples offeminist science fiction. The Muslim Literary Society of Bengal was founded by free-thinking and progressive teachers of Dacca University under the chairmanship of Dr. Muhammad Shahidullah on 19 January 1926. TheFreedom of Intellect Movement was championed by the society.[140] When Bengal was partitioned in 1947, a distinct literary culture evolved in East Pakistan and modern Bangladesh.Shamsur Rahman was regarded as the country's poet laureate.Jasimuddin became noted for poems and songs reflecting life in rural Bengal and was given the title "Polli Kobi".Al Mahmud was considered one of the greatestBengali poets to have emerged in the 20th century.[141]Humayun Ahmed promoted the Bangladeshi field ofmagical realism.Akhtaruzzaman Elias was noted for his works set in Old Dhaka.Tahmima Anam has been a noted writer ofBangladeshi English literature.
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A notable feature of Bengali Muslim music is the syncreticBaul tradition. The leading iconic practitioner of Baul tradition wasFakir Lalon Shah.[152] Baul music is included in theUNESCOMasterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
Nazrul Sangeet is the collection of 4,000 songs andghazals written by Kazi Nazrul Islam.
South Asian classical music is widely prevalent in the region.Alauddin Khan,Ali Akbar Khan, andGul Mohammad Khan were notable Bengali Muslim exponents of classical music.
In the field of modern musicRuna Laila became widely acclaimed for her musical talents across South Asia.[153]
The Mughal influence in Bengali Cuisine led to an increase in the use of milk and sugar in sweet dishes likeRasmalai ofCumilla,Sandesh ofShatkhira, MalaiChomchom ofTangail,Mishti Doi ofBogra, Muktagachhar monda,Roshkodom ofRajshahi andChhanamukhi ofBrahmanbaria. Uses of Cream (Malai), Mutton, chicken and ghee and spices like cardamon and saffron has increased due to the heavy Mughal influence.
Dhaka, the capital ofMughal Bengal and present day capital of Bangladesh, has been the epitome of Perso-Bengali and Arab-Bengali cuisines. WithinBengali cuisine, Muslim dishes include the serving of meat curries,pulao rice, variousbiryani preparations, and dry and dairy-based desserts alongside traditional fish and vegetables.Bakarkhani breads from Dhaka were once immensely popular in the imperial court of the Mughal Empire. Other major breads consumed today includenaan andparatha. In present-day Bangladesh the Mughal-influenced foods are immensely popular such as Shuti Kabab,Kala bhuna,Korma, Rôst,Mughlai Paratha, Jali Kabab,Shami Kabab,Akhni, Tehari,Tanduri Chicken,Kofta, Firni andShingara.[154]Different types of Bengalibiryani andpilaf include theKachi (mutton),Illish pulao (hilsa),Tehari (beef), andMurg Pulao (chicken).Mezban is a renowned spicy beef curry from Chittagong. Regional varieties include delicacies likeBakarkhani,Shahi jilapi,Haji biryani,Borhani ofDhaka,Kala bhuna,Gosht,Durus kura,Nakshi Pitha ofChittagong andAkhni,Duck Bamboo Curry,Hutki shira ofSylhet.Halwa,Falooda,Kulfi,pithas,yogurt (such asCurd of Bogra andMishti Doi), andshemai are typical Muslim desserts inBengali cuisine. In the Bengali majority country of Bangladesh, people prefers to eat more spicy food rather than sweet comparing to West Bengal. Iconic Bengali dishes likeShorshe Ilish,Kala bhuna,Bhurta,Shutki Shira,Chingri Malaikari,Machher Jhol, Machher Paturi and KacchiBiryani has their origins in Bangladesh.Bengali dishes likeShemai,Chotpoti,Handesh, Nunbora andPithas are part of theBengali celebration ofEid Al Fitr.Bangladeshi cuisine is a great example of Muslim culture ofBengali cuisine as meat is more common amongBangladeshis.
According to a famous Bengali proverb, there are thirteen festivals in twelve months (Bengali:বারো মাসে তেরো পার্বণ,romanized: Bārō māsē tērō pārbaṇa).Eid-ul-Fitr at the end ofRamadan is the largest religious festival among Bengali Muslims. The festival of sacrifice takes place duringEid-al-Adha, with cows and goats as the main sacrificial animals.Muharram andMuhammad's birthday are national holidays in Bangladesh. During Muharram, Bengali Muslims enjoys theJari gan andLathi Khela.[155] The biggest Jashne Julus happens inChittagong.[156]AfterMiladmehfil, Bengali Muslims distribute sweets such asPantua,Chomchom, kalojam, Moa, Naru andRoshogolla. Other festivals likeShab-e-Barat feature prayers and exchange ofBengali sweets such asSandesh,Barfi andHalwa and many other festivities especially byDhakaiyas.[157]Pohela Boishakh is the biggest celebration inBangladesh which was founded by the Bengali MuslimMahifarash community inOld Dhaka. The day marked byMangal Shobhajatra,Boishakhi Mela, Borshoboron celebration byChhayanaut in Ramna Batamul and tradition meals likePanta Ilish andBhurta.Dhaka has this kite festival calledShakrain. Other festivals likePohela Falgun,Nouka Baich,Borsha Mongol,Haal Khata,Nabanna,Rabindra Jayanti andNazrul Jayanti are celebrated with great care.
TheBishwa Ijtema, organised annually in Bangladesh, is the second-largest Islamic congregation after theHajj. It was founded by the orthodoxSunniTablighi Jamaat movement in 1954.
There is no single governing body for the Bengali Muslim community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine. However, the semi-autonomousIslamic Foundation, a government institution, plays an important role in Islamic affairs in Bangladesh, including setting festival dates and matters related tozakat. The general Bengali Muslim clergy remains deeply orthodox and conservative. Members of the clergy includeMawlānās,Imams,Ulamas, andMuftis.
The clergy of the Bengali MuslimShia minority have been based in the old quarter of Dhaka since the 18th century.
Muhammad Yunus is the first Bengali Muslim Nobel laureate who was awarded theNobel Peace Prize for founding theGrameen Bank and pioneering the concepts ofmicrocredit andmicrofinance.[158]Begum Rokeya was one of the world's first Muslim feminists.Kazi Nazrul Islam was renowned as theRebel Poet of British India and the National Poet of Bangladesh.Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the firstPresident of Bangladesh. On 14 April, the final day, which was also thePohela Boishakh, the BBC announcedSheikh Mujibur Rahman, as theGreatest Bengali of All Time voted by Bengalis worldwide.[159]Iskander Mirza was the first president of theIslamic Republic of Pakistan.Khwaja Salimullah was one of the founders of theAll-India Muslim League.A. K. Fazlul Huq was the firstPrime Minister of undivided Bengal,Chief Minister of East Bengal,Interior Minister of Pakistan.Rushanara Ali was the amongst the first MuslimMPs in theHouse of Commons of the United Kingdom.Fazlur Rahman Khan was a prominent American Bengali Muslim engineer who brought in spectacular changes in design of modern skyscraper construction.[108]Jawed Karim is one of the co-founders of YouTube.Sal Khan is a co-founder ofKhan Academy.Humayun Rashid Choudhury served asPresident of the United Nations General Assembly.M. A. G. Osmani was afour star general who founded the Bangladesh Armed Forces.Altamas Kabir was theChief Justice of India.[160]Nafisa Ali are prominent Bengali Muslims who act inIndian cinema.Alaol was a medieval Bengali Muslim poet who worked in the royal court of Arakan.[137]Mohammad Ali Bogra served as thePrime Minister of Pakistan.Begum Sufia Kamal was a leading Bengali Muslim feminist, poet, and civil society leader.Zainul Abedin was the pioneer of modernBangladeshi art.Muzharul Islam was the grand master of South Asian modernist terracotta architecture.
Other Bengali religious groups
Bengali-speaking Muslims as a group consists of around 200 million people.
There are around three million Bengalis in Pakistan
Ethnic Bengalis in Pakistan – an estimated two million – are the most discriminated ethnic community
Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals, and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.
TheSri Rajmala indicates that the periodic invasions of Tripura by the Bengal sultans were part of the same strategy [to control the sub-Himalayan routes from the south-eastern delta]. Mines of coarse gold were found in Tripura.
[Husayn Shah] reduced the kingdoms of ... Tripura in the east to vassalage.
[Husayn Shah pushed] its western frontier past Bihar up to Saran in Jaunpur ... when Sultan Husayn Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur fled to Bengal after being defeated in battle by Sultan Sikandar Lodhi of Delhi, the latter attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Jaunpur ruler. Unable to make any gains, Sikandar Lodhi returned home after concluding a peace treaty with the Bengal sultan.
some of them [items exported from Bengal to China] were probably re-exports. The Bengal ports possibly functioned as entrepots in Western routes in the trade with China.
The Sultanate mosques ... all had in common a remarkable uniformity of design ... features familiar from the Islamic architecture of the central Islamic lands and north India reappear here; others are totally new.
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