Bengal Sultanate | |||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1352–1539 1554–1576 | |||||||||||||||||||||
 Extent of the Sultanate of Bengal under the Hussain Shahi dynasty. | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Status | Sultanate | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Capital | Pandua[a] (1352–1390, 1410-1433) Sonargaon[b] (1390–1410) Gaur[c] (1433–1565) Tanda[d] (1565–1576) | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Official languages | Bengali Persian | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Religion | Sunni Islam (official) Hinduism Buddhism | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Government | Absolute monarchy | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Sultan | |||||||||||||||||||||
• 1342–1358 (first) | Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah | ||||||||||||||||||||
• 1572–1576 (last) | Daud Khan Karrani | ||||||||||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||||||||||
• Unification | 1352 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 1353–1359 | |||||||||||||||||||||
• Raja Ganesha's rebellion | 1414 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 1415–1420 | |||||||||||||||||||||
| 1429–1430 | |||||||||||||||||||||
| 1498 | |||||||||||||||||||||
| 1512–1516 | |||||||||||||||||||||
| 1532–1533 | |||||||||||||||||||||
• Suri invasion | 1539 | ||||||||||||||||||||
• Restoration | 1554 | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 1572–1576 | |||||||||||||||||||||
| 12 July 1576 | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Currency | Taka | ||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||
| Today part of | Bangladesh India Myanmar Nepal | ||||||||||||||||||||
TheBengal Sultanate (Middle Bengali:শাহী বাঙ্গালাহ্,Classical Persian:سلطنت بنگاله[4]) was alate medievalsultanate based in theBengal region in easternSouth Asia between the 14th and 16th century. It was the dominant power of theGanges-Brahmaputra Delta, with a network of mint towns spread across the region. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle ofvassal states in theIndian subcontinent andSoutheast Asia, including parts ofOdisha in the southwest,[5] parts ofBihar in the northwest,[6] parts ofAssam in the northeast,[7]Arakan in the southeast,[8] andTripura in the east.[9]
The Bengal Sultanate controlled large parts of eastern South Asia during its five dynastic periods, reaching its peak underJalaluddin Muhammad Shah. Its raids and conquests reachedNepal in the north,Brahmaputra Valley (modern-dayAssam) in the east, andJaunpur andVaranasi in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation. Its decline began with aninterregnum by theSur Empire, followed byMughalconquest and disintegration into petty kingdoms. The Bengal Sultanate was a Sunni Muslim monarchy[10][11][12] withBengali,Turco-Persian,Afghan andAbyssinian elites.[13] The most prominent dynasties were theIlyas Shahi,House of Ganesha andHussain Shahi. The kingdom was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. WhilePersian was used as the primary official, diplomatic and commercial language, it was under the Sultans thatBengali first received court recognition as an official language.[14][15] The cities of the Bengal Sultanate are termed as Mint Towns where the historicaltaka wasminted. These cities were adorned with stately medieval buildings.[16] In 1500, the royal capital ofGaur was the fifth-most populous city in the world.[17][18] Other notable cities included the initial royal capital ofPandua, the economic hub ofSonargaon, theMosque City of Bagerhat, and the seaport and trading hub ofChittagong. The Bengal Sultanate was connected to states in Asia, Africa, the Indian Ocean, and Europe through maritime links and overland trade routes. The Bengal Sultanate was a major trading center on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. It attracted immigrants and traders from different parts of the world. Bengali ships and merchants traded across the region, including in Malacca, China, and the Maldives.
Contemporary European and Chinese visitors described the Bengal Sultanate as a prosperous and thriving kingdom. Due to the abundance of goods in Bengal, the region was described as the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct Bengali style.[13] The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in thehistory of Bengal.[19]
Bengal was gradually absorbed into theDelhi Sultanate during the 1200s. It began withBakhtiyar's 1202–1204 conquest of Gauda during the reign ofMuhammad of Ghor. This saw the beginning of the rise ofTurko-Afghans in the Indian subcontinent.[20][21] Bakhityar Khalji served as a military general of theGhurid ruler Muhammad of Ghor. He formed theKhalji dynasty of Bengal.[22] After the assassination of Bakhtiar Khalji by his own officerAli Mardan in 1206, Bengal was administered by various Maliks belonging to the Khalji tribe (except a brief interregnum by Ali Mardan himself) until Delhi SultanIltutmish sent forces under his son, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, to bring Bengal under the direct control of the Delhi Sultans.[23] Iltutmish declared Bengal as a province of Delhi in 1225. The Delhi Sultans attempted to govern Bengal through appointed governors, however, Delhi could not succeed given the considerable overland distance with Bengal. Ambitious governors rebelled and ruled as independent rulers until being suppressed militarily by the Delhi Sultanate. However, there were capable rulers among the rebels, including Yuzbak Shah (1257),Tughral Khan (1271–1282), andShamsuddin Firoz Shah (1301–1322). The latter achieved theConquest of Sylhet and established a strong administration in eastern and south-western Bengal. In 1325, the Delhi Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq reorganized the province into three administrative regions, withSonargaon ruling eastern Bengal;Gauda ruling northern Bengal; andSatgaon ruling southern Bengal. Even this arrangement broke down. By 1338, the three administrative regions had separatistSultans, includingFakhruddin Mubarak Shah in Sonargaon;Alauddin Ali Shah in Gauda, andShamsuddin Ilyas Shah in Satgaon.[24] Fakhruddin conquered Chittagong in 1340 and was succeeded by his sonIkhtiyaruddin Ghazi Shah in 1349. Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah (or justIlyas Shah) defeated Alauddin Ali Shah and secured control of Gauda. He then defeated Ikhtiyaruddin of Sonargaon. By 1352, Ilyas Shah emerged victorious among the Bengali triad.[citation needed]
Ilyas Shah established his capital inPandua. He unified thedelta of Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers into the Sultanate of Bengal. Ilyas Shah waged wars and raids against several city-states and kingdoms in the eastern subcontinent. He conquered eastern Bengal and northern Bihar. He led the first Muslim army intoNepal, raided theKathmandu Valley, and returned to Bengal with treasures.[25] He controlled an area stretching from Assam in the east toVaranasi in the west.[24] In 1353, Ilyas Shah was defeated by Delhi SultanFiruz Shah Tughluq in the Siege of Ekdala Fort during theEkdala Wars. Bengal agreed to pay a tribute to the Delhi Sultan. Despite losing control of many conquered areas, Ilyas Shah remained in firm control of Bengal.[24]
Ilyas Shah founded theIlyas Shahi dynasty which ruled Bengal for fifteen decades. His son and successorSikandar Shah defeated Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq during the second Siege of Ekdala Fort in 1359. A peace treaty was signed between Delhi and Bengal, with the former recognizing the independence of the latter. Firuz Shah Tughluq gave a goldencrown estimated to be worth 80,000taka to Sikandar Shah. The peace treaty ensured Bengal's independence for two centuries.[26]
Sikandar Shah's reign lasted three decades. TheAdina Mosque was built during his reign. The mosque's design was based on theGreat Mosque of Damascus, style used during the introduction of Islam in new areas. During this time, much of the agricultural land was controlled by Hinduzamindars, which caused tensions with Muslimtaluqdars.[27]
The third SultanGhiyasuddin Azam Shah began expanding Bengal's influence abroad. He began to send embassies toMing China, which continued as a tradition during the reigns of his successors. Ghiyasuddin also sponsored construction projects inArabia. He exchanged letters and poetry with the Persian poetHafez.[28] The Bengal Sultans pledged nominal allegiance to theAbbasid Caliphate in Cairo. The coins of the Bengal Sultans often bore the name of the contemporary Abbasid Caliph.[29] Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah held his court in the central Bengali city of Sonargaon, in addition to Pandua. The travel accounts of Chinese envoys state that the Sultan lived in a palace near theriver port of Sonargaon. The river port had shipping links to China, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East. In 1406, Ma Huan found Sonargaon as a large metropolis. Other Chinese envoys provided descriptions of a fortified walled city. Sonargaon was a center ofSufi education and Persian literature and Azam Shah even invited Hafez to settle there. The institutions founded byAbu Tawwama during the Delhi Sultanate were maintained by his successors in the Bengal Sultanate, including the Sufi preachersIbrahim Danishmand, Saiyid Arif Billah, Muhammad Kamel, Saiyid Muhammad Yusuf and others.[2]
In the 14th century, Islamic kingdoms stretched fromMuslim Spain in the west to the Indian subcontinent in the east. The Islamic kingdoms hadmultiethnic elites. Persian and Arabic were used alongside local languages. Persian was used as a diplomatic and commercial language. Arabic was the liturgical language of the clergy. In Bengal, the Bengali language became a court language and was the main vernacular language under Muslim rule.[14]
During the early 15th century, the Ilyas Shahi rule was challenged byRaja Ganesha, a powerful Hindu landowner, who managed to place his son (a convert to Islam),Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah, on the throne. Jalaluddin had a relatively short-lived but significant reign, during which he helped an Arakanese king to achieve thereconquest of Arakan. Jalaluddin established control overFatehabad.[30] Jalaluddin also promoted more native Bengali elements into the architecture and governance of the sultanate. He was initially loyal to the Abbasid Caliph but later declared himself as the Caliph of Allah.[31] The Ilyas Shahi dynasty was restored in 1432.
Nine kings ruled Bengal from Pandua over the course of ten decades. They built palaces, forts, bridges, mosques, and mausoleums.[32] Chinese envoyMa Huan described the city at the time in his travel accounts, which state that "the city walls are very imposing, the bazaars well-arranged, the shops side by side, the pillars in orderly rows, they are full of every kind of goods". Pandua was an export center for cloth and wine. At least six varieties of finemuslin and four types of wine were found in Pandua. High-quality paper was produced from the bark of Pandua's mulberry trees.[33] SultanMahmud Shah of Bengal shifted the capital from Pandua to Gaur in 1450. One of the probable reasons behind the move was a change in the course of nearby rivers.[34]
The reign of Mahmud Shah witnessed greater control over theSundarbans. The governor of the Sundarbans,Khan Jahan Ali, built the mint town ofKhalifatabad.[35] In 1459,Jessore andKhulna became part of Bengal Sultanate.[36] Like many other officials, Khan Jahan had settled in Bengal afterTimur's sack of Delhi. During the reign ofRukunuddin Barbak Shah, theKingdom of Mrauk U conquered Chittagong. The late 1480s saw four usurper Sultans from theAbyssinian mercenary corps. Tensions between different Muslim communities often affected the sultanate.[27]
Alauddin Hussain Shah gained control of Bengal in 1494 when he was prime minister. Alauddin Husain Shah founded theHussain Shahi dynasty which was of Bengali Origin.Francis Buchanan-Hamilton's writings make mention of a manuscript found in the former Bengali capitalPandua which labels Hussain as a native of a village namedDevnagar in Rangpur who seized an opportunity to redeem the throne of Bengal that his grandfather, Sultan Ibrahim, had held seventy years prior.[citation needed] The local traditions of Rangpur verify these claims.[37]Nitish Sengupta also asserts that Husain's mother was aBengali.[38]Nitish Sengupta also states thatAlauddin Hussain Shah must be given the credit of being the first Bengali ruler of Gaur. It is also possible the dynasty hadSayyid ofArab[39][40][41] orAfghan[42][43] origin. He brought end to a period of instability. As Sultan, Hussain Shah ruled until 1519. The dynasty he founded reigned until 1538. Muslims and Hindus jointly served in the royal administration during the Hussain Shahi dynasty. This era is often regarded as the golden age of the Bengal Sultanate, in which Bengali territory included areas ofArakan,Orissa,Tripura, andAssam.[27] Under the order of Hussain Shah,Shah Ismail Ghazi commanded the Bengali forces in theConquest of Kamata, conquering large parts of Assam. After overthrowing the HinduKhen dynasty, PrinceDanyal was appointed the governor of the new region. Hussain Shah also restored Bengali sovereignty in Chittagong and northern Arakan after theBengal Sultanate–Kingdom of Mrauk U War of 1512–1516. Hussain Shah minted coins with the proclamation "conqueror of Kamrupa, Kamata, Jajnagar and Orissa".[44] According to historianJadunath Sarkar, a 1513 inscription from Sonargaon indicates that Hussain Shah annexed a part of theTwipra Kingdom.[45] ThePratapgarh Kingdom came under Bengalisuzerainty.[46][47] Hussain Shah also waged several campaigns against theGajapati rulers of Orissa.[48] Hussain Shah extended Bengali territory in the west beyond Bihar, up to Saran inJaunpur. The Sultan of Jaunpur took refuge in Bengal after an invasion by theLodi dynasty of Delhi. The Delhi Sultan attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Jaunpur Sultan. Unable to make headway, the Delhi Sultan withdrew after concluding a peace treaty with Bengal.[49] UnderNasiruddin Nasrat Shah, the Sultanate pushed into theMithila region and annexed the rulingOiniwar dynasty in 1526 with the ruler of the Oiniwars, Laksminathasimha, being killed in battle.[50][51]
Embassies fromPortuguese India frequented Bengal after the landing ofVasco Da Gama in the principality of Calicut.[52] Individual Portuguese merchants are recorded to have lived in the Bengal Sultanate's capital of Gaur. Portuguese politics played out in Gaur as a reflection of contradictions in contemporary Portugal.[52] The Portuguese provided vivid descriptions of Gaur. They compared the affluence of Gaur withLisbon. The city included a citadel, a royal palace anddurbar, mosques, houses for the rich, and bustling bazaars. Portuguese historian Castenhada de Lopez described the houses of Gaur as being one-storeyed with ornamental floor tiles, courtyards, and gardens. Gaur was the centre of regional politics. The Sultan of Bengal gave permission for establishing thePortuguese settlement in Chittagong. During the period of theIberian Union, there was no official Portuguese sovereignty over Chittagong. The Portuguese trading post was dominated bypirates who allied with the Arakanese against Bengal.
The absorption of Bengal into theMughal Empire was a gradual process. It began with the defeat of Bengal forces under SultanNasiruddin Nasrat Shah by the first Mughal rulerBabur at the Battle of Ghaghra. The second Mughal rulerHumayun occupied the Bengal capital of Gaur during the invasion ofSher Shah Suri against both the Mughals and Bengal Sultans. Humayun later took refuge in theSafavid Empire in Persia. Sher Shah Suri succeeded in conquering Bengal, forming theSur Empire, which was of Afghan origin. During this period, theGrand Trunk Road was renovated, while the Sur rulers placed successive governors in Bengal.[53] The third governorMuhammad Khan Sur declared independence after the death ofIslam Shah Suri. Muhammad Khan ended the interrupting period of Delhi's rule and re-established the Bengal Sultanate under the Muhammad Shahi dynasty, which was also of Afghan origin.[54]
TheAfghanKarrani dynasty was the last ruling dynasty of the sultanate. According to theRiyaz-us-Salatin, SultanSulaiman Khan Karrani shifted the capital from Gaur toTanda in 1565.[55] Sulaiman Khan Karrani annexed large parts of Orissa. During his reign, the Bengal Sultanate's territory extended fromKoch Bihar in the north toPuri in the south and from theSon River in the west to theBrahmaputra River in the east. The Mughals became determined to bring an end to the expansionism of the Bengal Sultanate; while eager to absorb the Bengal region for its riches. TheBattle of Tukaroi in Orissa saw Mughal forces led byAkbar overwhelm the Bengal Sultanate's forces led by the last SultanDaud Khan Karrani, resulting in the Treaty ofCuttack. Mughal rule formally began with theBattle of Raj Mahal when the last reigning Sultan of Bengal was defeated by the forces of Akbar. The Mughal province ofBengal Subah was created. The eastern deltaicBhati region remained outside of Mughal control until being absorbed in the early 17th century. The delta was controlled by a confederation of twelve aristocrats of the former sultanate, who became known as theBaro Bhuyans. Their leader wasIsa Khan, a zamindar and a former nobleman of the sultanate through his mother PrincessSyeda Momena Khatun. The confederation was made up ofpetty kingdoms. The Mughal government eventually suppressed the remnants of the sultanate in the Bhati area and brought all of Bengal under full Mughal control.[citation needed]
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The Bengal Sultanate was anabsolute monarchy, and took influence fromPersianate traditions. Its revenue system was maintained in theBengali language throughout the course of its history.[56] The government employed both Muslims and Hindus, promoting a form of religious pluralism.[57] In addition to the royal family and government body, the Sultan also relied on the support of theulama (Islamic scholars).[58]
The Sultanate was divided into administrative subdivisions such asarsa andiqlim, which were further divided intomahals,thanas andqasbas.[59]
From 1342 to 1415, theIlyas Shahi dynasty ruled Bengal fromPandua, followed by theHouse of Raja Ganesh in Pandua (1415–1433). During the reign ofGhiyasuddin Azam Shah (r. 1390–1411),Sonargaon became the capital of the sultanate.[2] The restored Ilyas Shahi dynasty governed fromGaur (1433–1486), succeeded by theAbyssinian Sultans (1486–1493) andHussain Shahi dynasty (1493–1538) in Gaur. The Afghan Sultans of the House ofSher Shah Sur (1538–c. 1553) and House of Muhammad Khan (c. 1553–1564) both ruled from Gaur while theKarrani dynasty (1564–1576) ruled inTanda.[1]
| Period | Dynasty | Capital |
|---|---|---|
| 1342–1415 | Ilyas Shahi dynasty | Pandua |
| 1415–1433 | House of Ganesha | Pandua |
| 1433–1486 | Restored Ilyas Shahi dynasty | Gaur |
| 1486–1493 | Habshi dynasty | Gaur |
| 1493–1538 | Hussain Shahi dynasty | Gaur |
| c. 1553–1564 | House of Muhammad Khan | Tanda |
| 1564–1576 | Karrani dynasty | Tanda |
Mint towns consisted of royal and provincial capitals where taka coins were minted, thus developing the areas as important economic urban centres within the Sultanate. With the expansion of the empire, the number of mint towns increased gradually. The following is a partial listing of mint towns:[60]
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The Sultans had a well-organised army, including cavalry, artillery, infantry and war elephants; and a navy. Due to the riverine geography and climate, it was not feasible to use cavalry throughout the year in Bengal. The cavalry was probably the weakest component of the Bengal Sultanate's army, as the horses had to be imported from foreign countries. The artillery was an important section. Portuguese historianJoão de Barros opined that the military supremacy of Bengal over Arakan and Tripura was due to its efficient artillery. The artillery used cannons and guns of various sizes.[61] Thepaiks formed the vital part of the Bengal infantry during this period. There were occasions when the paiks also tackled political situations. The particular battle array of the foot-soldiers who used bows, arrows and guns attracted the attention of Babur.[61]
War elephants played an important part in the Bengal army. Apart from carrying war materials, elephants were also used for the movement of the armed personnel. In riverine Bengal the usefulness of elephants, though very slow, could not be minimised. The navy was of prime necessity in riverine Bengal. In fact, the cavalry could ensure the hold over this country for a period of six months whereas the boats backed by the paiks could command supremacy over the other half of the year. Since the time of Iwaz Khalji, who first organised a naval force in Islamic Bengal, the war boats played an important role in the political affairs of the country. The chief of the admiralty had various responsibilities, includingshipbuilding, river transport, to fit out strong boats for transporting war elephants; to recruit seamen; to patrol the rivers and to collect tolls at ghats. The efficiency of the navy eroded during the Hussain Shahi dynasty. The Sultans also built forts, including temporary mud walled forts.[61]
In 1353, the Sultan of Delhi attacked the newly formed Bengal Sultanate. After the siege of Ekdala Fort, Bengal agreed to pay a tribute to the Sultan of Delhi. In 1359, Delhi again invaded Bengal after the previous peace treaty collapsed and this time the Delhi forces were repulsed leading to Bengali victory. However, negotiations ultimately resulted in a new treaty in which Delhi recognized the independence of Bengal.[24] The Bengal Sultans also received support from South Indian allies. During the 16th century, the Lodi dynasty of Delhi again attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Sultan of Jaunpur. The Lodis eventually agreed to a peace treaty with Bengal.
The Jaunpur Sultanate attacked Bengal during the 15th century. With diplomatic help from Ming China and theTimurid ruler ofHerat, Bengal fended off the Jaunpuri invasion.[62][63] The motivation behind this sudden war was the newly emerged HinduHouse of Ganesha which rose to prominence afterRaja Ganesha rose to power by assassinating the Sultans of the previous dynasty. Qutb al Alam a powerful Muslim holy man was asked byRaja Ganesha for help due to the imminent threat of invasion soon after Ganesha usurped the throne. Qutb Alam eventually came to the agreement that Raja Ganesha's son, Jadu, would convert to Islam and rule in his place. Raja Ganesha agreed and Jadu started ruling Bengal asJalaluddin Muhammad Shah in 1415.
The war began in 1415 and ended in 1420.[62] TheJaunpaur Sultanate challenged the newly emerged Hindu dynasty ofRaja Ganesha.Raja Ganesha was later removed as a result but his sonJalaluddin Muhammad Shah converted to Islam and ruled the Sultanate. Parts of theJaunpur Sultanate were annexed by Bengal and peace was established between the two states.
TheTimurid Empire and alsoMing China mediated the war. A diplomat in the court of Shahrukh Mirza recorded that the Timurid ruler of Herat intervened during the Bengal-Jaunpur conflict after a request from the Sultan of Bengal. The record speaks of Shahrukh Mirza "directing the ruler of Jaunpur to abstain from attacking the King of Bengal, or to take the consequence upon himself. To which the intimation of the Jaunpur ruler was obedient, and desisted from his attacks upon Bengal".[62] Records from Ming China state that the Yongle Emperor also mediated between Jaunpur and Bengal after the Bengali ambassador in his Peking court complained of the conflict.[64]
Shamsuddin Ilyas shah led the first military engagement and led a successful campaign against theKamarupa kingdom in present-dayAssam, being the first Muslim king to captureGuwahati.[citation needed]
The invasion of Assam bySikandar Shah (son of Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah) weakened Indranarayan. Though Shah had to retreat from central Assam because of an attack on Bengal byFiruz Shah Tughlaq, Indranarayana was sufficiently damaged that a Bhuyan fromDarrang, Arimatta, was able to usurp power.[e]
Shamsuddin Muzaffar Shah, the last ruler of theHabshi dynasty defeated theKamata Kingdom of Assam. He developed an army of 40,000 soldiers; recruiting thousands ofAfghans and 5,000 Abyssinians.[66] In 896 AH (1490–1491 AD), he constructed amosque inGangarampur, adjacent to theDargah of Makhdum Mawlana Ata. On 30 December 1492, his governorKhurshid Khan established aJama Mosque nearNawabganj on the banks of theMahananda River.[67] He defeated theKamata Kingdom in battle and conquered their territory in the year 898 AH (1492–93 AD) and subsequently issued coins bearingKamata Mardan 898.[68]
DuringHusain Shah's rule, Bengali control over Assam reached its zenith. Under the military command ofShah Ismail Ghazi, the Bengali army overthrew theKamata Kingdom's HinduKhen dynasty in 1498. In 1499, Husain Shah's generalShah Ismail Ghazi led an expedition to theKamata Kingdom. Husain Shah's army imprisoned King Nilambar of Kamata, pillaged the capital city and annexed the territory up toHajo. The victory was publicly recorded in an inscription atMalda.[70]
In 1532, aBengali Muslim commander named Turbak invadedAhom territory with a force comprising 1,000 cavalry, 30 elephants, and numerous guns and cannons. He set up camp near the fort at Singiri.[71] Ahom forces, underSuklen, crossed theBrahmaputra and attacked the Muslim encampment, despite warnings from astrologers. However, the battle ended in disaster for the Ahoms, who suffered heavy losses, with eight commanders killed.Suklen barely escaped with a serious wound. The Muslim forces stopped advancing for the rainy season at Koilabar.[72][73]
TheAhoms retreated to Sala after their initial setbacks,[73] where they regrouped with reinforcements and appointed Senglung as the new Commander-in-Chief. By March 1533, however, theAhoms turned the tide in their favor. In a navalbattle at Duimunisila, they inflicted significant losses on the Muslim forces, The Muslim commanders, Taju and Sangal, were killed, The invading forces lost 2,500 men, 20 ships, and several large cannons, marking a turning point in the war in favor of the Ahoms.[73][72]
During this time, Husain Khan, anotherMuslim general, arrived to reinforce Turbak's forces with six elephants, 100 cavalry, and 1,000 infantry troops. Reinforced by Hussain Khan, Turbak took position near the Dikrai River, across from theAhom camp. However, the Ahoms were now better prepared and managed to defeat theMuslims in several engagements. The final confrontation occurred near theBharali River, where Turbak was killed by a spear, and the Muslims were thrown into disarray. The Ahoms pursued the retreating forces all the way to theKaratoya River, where they achieved a complete victory.[74]
Arakan and theBrahmaputra Valley was often subjected to Bengali invasions. The restoration of Min Saw Mon was a military campaign led by the Bengal Sultanate to helpMin Saw Mon regain control of hisLaunggyet Dynasty. The campaign was successful. Min Saw Mon was restored to the Launggyet throne, andArakan became avassal state of the Bengal Sultanate. However, conflict later emerged between Arakan and Bengal based on the control ofChittagong. Arakan asserted its independence as a coastal power. UnderAlauddin Husain Shah, Bengali sovereignty was restored in Chittagong and northern Arakan. However, theArakanese persisted to fight over Chittagong, often allying withPortuguese pirates.
The first conflict between the Bengal Sultanate and theOdias dates back to the time ofShamsuddin Ilyas Shah where on his conquests subjugated Orissa. He defeated Bhanudeva II of theEastern Ganga dynasty. He further sackedJajpur,Cuttack and reached as far as theChilika Lake.
During the reign of Alauddin Hussain Shah, his commander Shah Ismail Ghazi led his first campaign against the confrontingKapilendra Deva of theGajapati Empire on the south-western frontier. He defeated the Gajapati Empire, recoveringMandaran,[75] where he constructed a fort.[76][77]
Orissa was also conquered again bySulaiman Khan Karrani and Orissa was annexed into the Bengal Sultanate in 1568. TheChalukya dynasty and Mughal Empire forged a close alliance through Akbar and his increasing desire to annex Bengal. Akbar andMukunda Deva the ruler of theChalukya dynasty exchanged many gifts in the hopes of defeating Bengal.[78] However theBhoi dynasty andChalukya dynasty were defeated leading to Bengali sovereignty over Orissa.[79]
Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was the first Sultan of the Bengal and unified the three city-states into what is now known as the Bengal Sultanate. He was the first to lead a Muslim army into Nepal.[25] He began his expedition with the occupation ofTirhut which he divided into north and south. Ilyas kept the southern part for himself stretching fromBegusarai toNepal Terai and restored the northern part of Tirhut, north of theBudhi Gandaki River to the ruler of theOiniwar dynasty, Raja Kameshwar. Its headquarters was situated in the village ofUkkacala (later known asHajipur in his honor),[80] where Ilyas had constructed a large fort and urbanised the area.[81] Ilyas then thrust through theTerai plains with his army, into theKathmandu Valley ruled byJayaraja Deva. His army sacked the temple ofSwayambhunath and lootedKathmandu city for three days, returning toBengal with plentiful spoils.[25]
Later on during the period of theHussain Shahi dynasty underNasiruddin Nasrat Shah, the Sultanate pushed into theMithila region and annexed the rulingOiniwar dynasty in 1526 with the ruler of the Oiniwars, Laksminathasimha, being killed in battle.[50][51]
Bengal was overwhelmed during the pan-Indian invasion ofSher Shah Suri and became part of theSur Empire. The invasion prompted the Mughal Empire to occupy parts of Bengal. Both the Mughals and Bengal Sultanate were overrun by the Suri forces. Bengal regained its independence after Suri governors rebelled and re-established the sultanate.
The first Mughal emperor Babur turned his sights on Bengal after the Battle of Panipat in 1526. At the Battle of Ghaghra in 1529, Bengal reached a peace treaty with Babur. During the invasion of Sher Shah Suri, the second Mughal emperor Humayun occupiedGaur. The third Mughal emperor Akbar launched a war against Bengal at the Battle of Tukaroi in 1575. Akbar finally defeated the last Sultan of Bengal at the Battle of Raj Mahal in 1576.
Vassal states were a number of tributary states andprotectorates on the periphery of the Bengal Sultanate under thesuzerainty of the Sultan of Bengal. Direct control was not established over these territories for various reasons. Vassal states had Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist rulers.
In the southeast,Arakan was a prominent vassal of the Bengal Sultanate. In 1430, the Bengal Sultanate restored the Arakanese throne inMrauk U after driving out Burmese invaders who came fromBagan. TheKingdom of Mrauk U paid tributes to the Sultan of Bengal for a sustained period, with the timeframe ranging between estimates of a century or a few decades.[82][8] Arakanese rulers replicated the Sultan's governing techniques, including adopting the title ofShah and minting coins in Arabic and Bengali inscriptions. A close cultural and commercial relationship developed across the Bay of Bengal.[83] Eventually, Arakan asserted its independence. The Kingdom of Mrauk U became a formidable coastal power.
In southern Bengal, the island ofChandradwip hosted remnants of the pre-Islamic HinduDeva dynasty. The kingdom was a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate until the reign of theHussain Shahi dynasty, when it was formally annexed by the sultanate.[84][85]
In the northeasternBarak Valley, the ruler Bazid of thePratapgarh Kingdom declared himself as a Sultan on par with the Sultan of Bengal. This invited the retribution ofAlauddin Husain Shah, who dispatchedSarwar Khan to suppress the newly formed sultanate in Pratapgarh. Bazid was defeated and agreed to pay a tribute to the Sultan of Bengal. He was also made to relinquish his claims overSylhet, which was under direct Sultanate rule.[86][87]
In the east,Tripura was vital to Bengal for the supply of gold, silver and other commodities. Tripura had coarse gold mines and mountain trade networks linked to the Far East. In 1464, the Sultan of Bengal helpedRatna Manikya I assume the Tripuri throne. Tripura was a prominent vassal of Bengal.[82][88][89]
In the southwest, Orissa was prominent in the military history of the Bengal Sultanate. The first Bengali Sultan Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah defeated the rulers of Orissa and extended his realm up toChilika Lake. He raidedJajpur and Cuttack. Ilyas Shah returned to Bengal with plunders from Orissa, including 44 elephants.[90] During the reign of Alauddin Hussain Shah, Orissa was a vassal state of Bengal.[82][91] Northern Orissa was directly ruled by Bengal. During the Karrani dynasty, Orissa was the scene of the Battle of Tukaroi and the Treaty of Cuttack between the Mughals and Bengal Sultanate in 1575.[citation needed]
The economy of the Bengal Sultanate inherited earlier aspects of the Delhi Sultanate, including mint towns, a salaried bureaucracy and thejagirdar system of land ownership. The production of silver coins inscribed with the name of the Sultan of Bengal was a mark of Bengali sovereignty.[92] Bengal was more successful in perpetuating purely silver coinage than Delhi and other contemporary Asian and European governments. There were three sources of silver. The first source was the leftover silver reserve of previous kingdoms. The second source was the tribute payments of subordinate kingdoms which were paid in silver bullion. The third source was during military campaigns when Bengali forces sacked neighboring states.[93]
The apparent vibrancy of the Bengal economy in the beginning of the 15th century is attributed to the end of tribute payments to Delhi, which ceased after Bengali independence and stopped the outflow of wealth.Ma Huan's testimony of a flourishing shipbuilding industry was part of the evidence that Bengal enjoyed significant seaborne trade. The expansion ofmuslin production,sericulture and the emergence of several other crafts were indicated in Ma Huan's list of items exported from Bengal to China. Bengali shipping co-existed with Chinese shipping until the latter withdrew from the Indian Ocean in the mid-15th century. The testimony of European travelers such asLudovico di Varthema,Duarte Barbosa andTomé Pires attest to the presence of a large number of wealthy Bengali merchants and shipowners inMalacca.[94] HistorianRila Mukherjee wrote that ports in Bengal may have beenentrepots, importing goods and re-exporting them to China.[95]
A vigorous riverine shipbuilding tradition existed in Bengal. The shipbuilding tradition is evidenced in the sultanate's naval campaigns in the Ganges delta. The trade between Bengal and the Maldives, based on rice and cowry shells, was probably done on Arab-stylebaghlah ships. Chinese accounts point to Bengali ships being prominent in Southeast Asian waters. A vessel from Bengal, probably owned by the Sultan of Bengal, could accommodate three tribute missions- from Bengal,Brunei and Sumatra- and was evidently the only vessel capable of such a task. Bengali ships were the largest vessels plying in those decades in Southeast Asian waters.[96]
All large business transactions were done in terms of silver taka. Smaller purchases involvedshell currency. One silver coin was worth 10,250 cowry shells. Bengal relied on shiploads of cowry shell imports from the Maldives. Due to the fertile land, there was an abundance of agricultural commodities, including bananas, jackfruits, pomegranate, sugarcane, and honey. Native crops included rice and sesame. Vegetables included ginger, mustard, onions, and garlic among others. There were four types of wines, including coconut, rice,tarry andkajang. Bengali streets were well provided with eating establishments, drinking houses and bathhouses. At least six varieties of fine muslin cloth existed. Silk fabrics were also abundant.Pearls, rugs andghee were other important products. The finest variety of paper was made in Bengal from the bark ofmulberry trees. The high quality of paper was compared with the lightweight white muslin cloth.[97]
Europeans & Ming Chinese referred to Bengal as "the richest country to trade with".[98] Bengal was the eastern pole of Islamic India. Like theGujarat Sultanate in the western coast of India, Bengal in the east was open to the sea and accumulated profits from trade. Merchants from around the world traded in theBay of Bengal.[99] Cotton textile exports were a unique aspect of the Bengali economy.Marco Polo noted Bengal's prominence in the textile trade.[100] In 1569, Venetian explorer Caesar Frederick wrote about how merchants fromPegu in Burma traded in silver and gold with Bengalis.[100] Overland trade routes such as the Grand Trunk Road connected Bengal to northern India, Central Asia and the Middle East.
The Bengal Sultanate had robustforeign relations. Records show that the Bengal Sultanate exchanged embassies with states in China, Europe, Africa, Central Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia. Diplomatic allies helped Bengal to fend off invasions from neighbouring kingdoms. For example, theTimurid ruler of Herat and theMing emperor of China helped bring an end to theBengal Sultanate–Jaunpur Sultanate War. Bengal was also active in regional diplomacy. For example, the ship of the Bengali embassy to China also transported the envoys ofBrunei andAceh (Sumatra) to China.[96] Bengal gave consent to envoys fromPortuguese India for setting up Portuguese trading posts in coastal areas.[52] Other European visitors includedNiccolo De Conti,Ludovico di Varthema and Caeser Fredrick from theRepublic of Venice andBologna.[101][102]
In the Islamic world, the sultanate pledged allegiance to the contemporaryAbbasid Caliphate, which was at the time held by theMamluk Sultan ofCairo. The Abbasid caliph was still considered to be the symbolic leader of Sunni Islam at the time, despite dwindling territory under direct caliphate rule. For the Bengali Sultans, relations with the caliphate provided legitimacy among the Muslim clergy. For example, theconverted SultanJalaluddin Muhammad Shah received recognition fromAl-Mu'tadid II, which strengthened Jalaluddin's legitimacy in the eyes of the clergy.[30] Many coins minted by the Bengal Sultanate bore the names of both the Bengali Sultans and the Abbasid Caliphs.[103]
During the latter part of his reign,Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah established amicable diplomatic relations withFiruz Shah Tughluq (r. 1351–88). The both courts exchange of gifts, with Ilyas Shah sending elephants to the Delhi court in return for Turkish and Arabian horses.[104] SultanGhiyasuddin Azam Shah sponsored the construction ofmadrasas (Islamic theological schools) in the pilgrimage cities ofMakkah andMadinah.[105] The schools became known as theGhiyasia Madrasa and Banjaliah Madrasa.Taqi al-Din al-Fasi, a contemporary Arab scholar, was a teacher at the madrasa in Makkah. The madrasa in Madinah was built at a place called Husn al-Atiq near theProphet's Mosque.[106] Several other Bengali Sultans also sponsored madrasas in theHejaz.[30]
In Africa, SultanAshraf Barsbay of Egypt sent the Bengali Sultan a robe of honour and a letter of recognition.[31] There are also records of envoys from the East African city-state ofMalindi being hosted in the Bengali court.[107] Animals constituted a significant part of tributes in medieval courts.[108] The East African envoys brought giraffes, which were also noticed by the Chinese envoys in Bengal.[107] In Central Asia, there are records of contacts between Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah and SultanShahrukh Mirza of the Timurid Empire. In Southeast Asia, European accounts refer to the presence of a large number of Bengali merchants in theMalacca Sultanate. The merchants were wealthy shipowners. It is yet to be ascertained whether these merchants had a significant role in the Sultan's court.[94] Ship-owning merchants were often royal envoys.[109] Contacts between Bengal and the Bruneian Empire and the Sumatran Aceh Sultanate are recorded in Chinese accounts.[96] Arab traveller and scholar Aḥmad ibn Sulaymān ibn Aḥamd al-Tarūjī (d. 1410), who visited Bengal mentioned the country very prosperous.[110]
Within the subcontinent, Bengal had both tense and peaceful relations with the Delhi Sultanate and the Jaunpur Sultanate. TheDelhi Sultanate initially received tributes from the Bengal Sultanate between 1353 and 1359. Tributes stopped after a war and peace treaty in 1359. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam sent envoys to the neighboringJaunpur Sultanate. He sent elephants as gifts to Sultan Malik Sarwar Khwajah-i-Jahan.[111] The two sultanates fought a war between 1415 and 1420. The end of the war brought a long period of peace between the neighbouring states. In 1494, the Jaunpuri Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi was given refuge in Bengal after being defeated by theLodi dynasty of Delhi.[112]
On the coastline of the Bay of Bengal, the Bengal Sultanate became influential in the control of Arakan.Min Saw Mon, a deposed Arakanese king, fled to Bengal after a Burmese invasion. With the support of Bengali forces led by a Pashtun general, he regained control of his country during theReconquest of Arakan. The restored Arakanese realm became a vassal state of Bengal. A war with Arakan in 1459 led to the defeat of Bengali SultanRukunuddin Barbak Shah. The Arakanese developed an alliance withPortuguese Chittagong against Bengal. Despite achieving independence from the Sultans of Bengal, the Arakanese kings continued to fashion themselves after the Bengali Sultans by copying clothes, coins, titles and administrative techniques. Bengali Muslim influence on Arakan lasted for 350 years.[113] In the Indian Ocean, the Bengal Sultanate was involved in trading with the Maldives where Bengali rice was exchanged for Maldivian shell currency.
Historians have focused on Bengal's relations with Ming China during the early 15th century. For example,Trade and Diplomacy in India-China Relations: A Study of Bengal During the Fifteenth Century chronicles the relationship between the Bengal Sultanate and Ming China.[114] This relationship was also noted by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru in his bookThe Discovery of India.[115] Political relations between China and the Indian subcontinent became nonexistent after the decline of Buddhism in India.[116] In the 15th century, the Bengal Sultanate revived the subcontinent's relations with China through regular contacts. SultanGhiyasuddin Azam Shah began sending envoys to theMing dynasty. He sent ambassadors in 1405, 1408 and 1409.[111] EmperorYongle of China responded by sending ambassadors to Bengal between 1405 and 1433, including members of theTreasure voyages fleet led byAdmiral Zheng He.[117] The exchange of embassies included the gift of an East African giraffe by SultanShihabuddin Bayazid Shah to the Chinese emperor in 1414.[108][118][117] China also mediated an end to the Bengal-Jaunpur War after a request from Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah.[30] Ming China considered Bengal to be "rich and civilized" and one of the strongest countries in the entire chain of contacts between China and Asian states during the 15th century.[119] Sino-Bengali contacts was the main feature of relations between China and the Indian subcontinent during the 15th century.
TheBengali language was the most spoken language whilePersian was an administrative and commercial language. Men wore whiteshirts,cotton fabrics of various colors,turbans,sarongs,lungis,dhutis,leather shoes, and belts to wrap their robes on the waist. Women wore cottonsaris. Upper-class women wore gold jewelry. There were various classes of artisans, as well as physicians and fortune tellers. There was a class of musicians who would gather by the houses of the rich during dawn and play music; and they would be rewarded with wine, food and money during breakfast hours. Some men would have performances with a chained tiger. TheHindu minority did not eat beef. The streets and markets included bathing areas, eating and drinking places, and dessert shops.Betel nut was offered to guests. The population included royalty, aristocrats, natives and foreigners. Many of the rich built ships and went abroad for trade. Many were agriculturalists. Punishments for breaking the law included expulsion from the kingdom, as well as bamboo flogging.[97]
Bengali male clothing is mentioned in a Chinese envoy of 1415 which described men ofPandua who “wear a white cottonturban and a long white cotton shirt. On their feet they wear low sheep-skin shoes withgold thread. The smarter ones think it the correct thing to have designs on them. Everyone of them is engaged in business, the value of which may be ten thousand pieces of gold.”[120]
Bengal was rich in textile production and export.Marco Polo mentioned the commercial importance of Bengali cotton. Maghrebi travelerIbn Battuta admired the local fine Muslin during his visit. Between 1415 and 1432Chinese diplomats wrote ofmuslin, rugs,veils of various colours,gauzes,turban materials, embroidered silks etc. In early 16th CenturyLudovico di Varthema noted “Fifty ships are laden every year in this place with cotton and silk stuffs..... These same stuffs go through all Turkey, through Syria, through Persia, through Arabia Felix, through Ethiopia, and through all India." Contemporary Tome Pires described the export of Bengali textiles to ports in the eastern half of the Indian Ocean.[121]
Chinese travelerWang Dayuan who visited Bengal writes on the Bengali people
These people [the Bengalis] owe all their tranquility and prosperity to themselves, for its source lies in their devotion to agriculture, whereby a land originally covered with jungle has been reclaimed by their unremitting toil in tilling and planting.[122]
— Wang Dayuan (1349)
Bengal received settlers from North India, the Middle East and Central Asia. They included Turks, Afghans, Persians and Arabs.[123] An important migrant community were Persians. Many Persians in Bengal were teachers, lawyers, scholars and clerics.[124] Mercenaries were widely imported for domestic, military and political service. One particular group of mercenaries were the Abyssinians.[56]
The Hindu and Muslim populations had their own endogamous communities (jāti) with distinctive occupations 16th century poetMukundaram, mentions fifteen Muslim communities inhabiting an idealized Bengali city of his day. The Muslim population engaged in professions like weavers, livestock herders, cake sellers,fishmongers, loom makers, circumcisers,bow makers,papermakers, wandering holy men,tailors, weavers of thick cord, dyers, users of hoes, andbeef sellers.[125] Saraikhanas (hotels) withTurkish baths had established for the merchants and travellers.[126]
Muslim poets were writing in the Bengali language by the 15th century. By the turn of the 16th century, a vernacular literature based on concepts ofSufism andIslamic cosmology flourished in the region. Bengali Muslim mystic literature was one of the most original in Islamic India.[99]
And with the three washers [cups of wine], this dispute is going on.
All the parrots [poets] of India have fallen into a sugar shattering situation (become excited)
That this Persian candy [ode], to Bangalah [Bengal] is going on.
— Excerpt of a poem jointly written byHafez and SultanGhiyasuddin Azam Shah in the 14th century[127]
With Persian as anofficial language, Bengal witnessed an influx ofPersian scholars, lawyers, teachers and clerics. It was the preferred language of the aristocracy and theSufis. Thousands of Persian books and manuscripts were published in Bengal. The earliest Persian work compiled in Bengal was a translation of Amrtakunda from Sanskrit by Qadi Ruknu'd-Din Abu Hamid Muhammad bin Muhammad al-'Amidi of Samarqand, a famous Hanafi jurist and Sufi. During the reign of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah, the city of Sonargaon became an important centre ofPersian literature, with many publications of prose and poetry. The period is described as the "golden age of Persian literature in Bengal". Its stature is illustrated by the Sultan's own correspondence with the Persian poet Hafez. When the Sultan invited Hafez to complete an incompleteghazal by the ruler, the renowned poet responded by acknowledging the grandeur of the king's court and the literary quality of Bengali-Persian poetry.[127]
Manuscript paintings depict the fashion and architecture of the Bengal Sultanate. Persian manuscripts with paintings are a key artistic hallmark of the Bengal Sultanate. One of the best-known examples of this heritage is SultanNasrat Shah's copy of Nizami'sIskandar Nama. The manuscript was published sometime during Nasrat Shah's reign, lasting from 1519 to 1538. It includes epic poetry byNizami Ganjavi about the conquests ofAlexander the Great.[128][129]
In the 15th century, the court scholarNur Qutb Alam pioneeredBengali Muslim poetry by establishing theDobhashi tradition, which saw poems written half in Persian and half in colloquial Bengali. The invocation tradition saw Islamic figures replacing the invocation of Hindu gods and goddesses in Bengali texts. The literary romantic tradition saw poems byShah Muhammad Sagir onYusuf and Zulaikha, as well as works of Bahram Khan and Sabirid Khan. TheDobhashi culture featured the use ofArabic and Persian words in Bengali texts to illustrate Muslim stories.Epic poetry includedNabibangsha bySyed Sultan,Janganama byAbdul Hakim andRasul Bijay by Shah Barid. Sufi literature flourished with a dominant theme ofcosmology. Bengali Muslim writers produced translations of numerous Arabic and Persian works, including theThousand and One Nights and theShahnameh.[130][131]
Hindu poets from the period includedMaladhar Basu,Bipradas Pipilai andVijay Gupta.
A majority of the Bengal Sultanate's mint towns and surviving structures are found in Bangladesh. These structures have been studied in the bookSultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh by Perween Hasan.[132][133] The Indian state of West Bengal is home to two of the sultanate's former capitalsGaur andPandua, as well as several notable structures including a watchtower, fortified walls and mausoleum. The oldest mosque in the Indian state of Assam dates from the Bengal Sultanate. A 15th-century sultanate-era mosque lies in ruins and covered with vegetation in Myanmar's Rakhine State.[83]
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Cities in the Bengal Sultanate had stately medieval architecture, particularly in the royal capitals of Gaur and Pandua. In 1500, the royal capital of Gaur had the fifth-largest urban population in the world afterBeijing,Vijayanagara,Cairo and Canton. It had a population of 200,000 (at the time, the global population is estimated to have ranged between 400 and 500 million).[17][18][134][135] The Portuguese historian Castenhada de Lopez described houses in Gaur as being one-storeyed with ornamental floor tiles, courtyards and gardens. The city had a citadel,durbar, watchtowers, canals, bridges, large gateways, and a city wall.[136] The royal palace was divided into three compartments. The first compartment was the royal court. The second was the living quarter of the Sultan. The third was the harem. A high wall enclosed the palace. A moat surrounded the palace on three sides and was connected to the Ganges. The city of Pandua developed from a small hamlet into a military garrison. It included imperial mosques and mausolea. Urban architecture in the Bengal Sultanate was based on Arab, Bengali, Persian, Indo-Turkish, and Byzantine influences. A glimpse of houses in the Bengal Sultanate can be seen in theIskandar Nama (Book of Alexander) published by Sultan Nasrat Shah.[128] There were significant indigenous developments. TheBengal roofs began appearing in concrete forms during the 15th century. These roofs were later widely replicated in the Mughal Empire and the Rajput kingdoms of the northwestern Indian subcontinent.
| Date | Ordinary | Congregational | Total |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1200-1250 | 2 | 0 | 2 |
| 1250–1300 | 3 | 1 | 4 |
| 1300–1350 | 2 | 0 | 2 |
| 1350–1400 | 4 | 1 | 5 |
| 1400–1450 | 5 | 0 | 5 |
| 1450–1500 | 52 | 9 | 61 |
| 1500–1550 | 28 | 28 | 56 |
| 1550–1600 | 15 | 2 | 17 |
| 1600–1650 | 7 | 0 | 7 |
| 1650–1700 | 17 | 0 | 17 |
| 1700–1750 | 8 | 0 | 8 |
| 1750–1800 | 4 | 0 | 4 |
| Total | 147 | 41 | 188 |
According to Perween Hasan, the mosques of the Bengal Sultanate have several common features, including pointed arches, multiplemihrabs, engaged corner towers, andterracotta and stone decoration.[128] In particular, the art of the mihrab is meticulous and unique to Bengal's mosque architecture.[138] Mosques were either rectangular and multi-domed or square and single-domed. The large number of mosques built during the Bengal Sultanate indicates the rapidity with which the local population converted to Islam. The period between 1450 and 1550 was an intensive mosque building era.[f] These mosques dotted the countryside, ranged from small to medium sizes and were used for daily devotion.Ponds were often located beside a mosque. Arabic inscriptions in the mosques often include the name of the patron or builder. The most commonly cited verse from the Quran in inscriptions was Surah 72 (Al-Jinn).[128] The buildings were made of brick or stone. The brick mosque with terracotta decoration represented a grand structure in the Bengal Sultanate. They were often the gift of a wealthy patron and the fruit of extraordinary effort, which would not be found in every Muslim neighborhood.[128]
Mosques were built across the length and breadth of the Bengal Sultanate. The highest concentration of mosques from the Bengal Sultanate can be found in theNorth Bengal regions of Bangladesh and Indian West Bengal. Amosque city developed near the southwestern Bengali Sundarbans forest as a result of the patronization of Governor Khan Jahan Ali. In 1985, UNESCO designated the city as aWorld Heritage Site.[139] In central areas, thePathrail Mosque in Faridpur is one of the best-preserved sultanate-era structures. In the northeast, theShankarpasha Shahi Masjid inSylhet is a well-preserved structure of the Bengal Sultanate. In the northeastern Indian state ofAssam, thePanbari Mosque was built during the reign of Sultan Alauddin Hussain Shah. Other mosques can be found in coastal areas of West Bengal and parts ofBihar, such as theSayed Jamaluddin Mosque. In the southeast, the Santikan Mosque (built in the 1430s) stands in ruins in Rakhine State (formerly Arakan) ofMyanmar (formerly Burma).[140]
Imperial mosques had an in-built throne for the Sultan. These thrones are termed asBadshah-e-Takht (King's Throne). The Sultans sat on the elevated throne and addressed his subjects below. The Sultans also administered justice and managed government affairs while sitting on these thrones. Mosques served as royal courts.[138] Mosques across the Bengal Sultanate had these thrones. The Sultans traveled from one town to another and hosted royal court activities in mosques with a Badshah-e-Takht. The Badshah-e-Takht inKusumba Mosque is heavily decorated with a small intrinsically designed mihrab. The Adina Mosque has one of the largest royal galleries in the subcontinent.[138]
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Mausoleums of the Bengal Sultanate are an important architectural hallmark. Initially,sarcophagi were erected based on Iranian models, such as theTomb of Cyrus. Sarcophagi would include mihrabs and arches resembling the architecture in Adina Mosque. For example, the tomb of Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah in Sonargaon has features similar to the architecture ofAdina Mosque built by his father Sultan Sikandar Shah. An indigenous Islamic mausolea style developed with theEklakhi Mausoleum, which is the royal tomb chamber of Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah. Other mausolea, such as theTomb of Fateh Khan in Gaur, featured Bengalido-chala roof.[141]
The architecture of the Bengal Sultanate has influencedmodern architecture in Bangladesh. The sultanate era inspired theBaitur Rauf Mosque, which won theAga Khan Award for Architecture in 2016.[142]
| Name | Reign | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah | 1342–1358 | Became the first sole ruler of wholeBengal comprisingSonargaon,Satgaon andLakhnauti. |
| Sikandar Shah | 1358–1390 | Assassinated by his son and successor,Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah |
| Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah | 1390–1411 | |
| Saifuddin Hamza Shah | 1411–1413 | |
| Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah bin Hamza Shah | 1413 | His coins were minted from Muazzamabad. Noman Nasir theorizes, based on numismatic evidence, that he was a son of Hamza Shah.[143]Assassinated by either his half-brother or his father's slaveShihabuddin Bayazid Shah on the orders of the landlord ofDinajpur,Raja Ganesha |
| Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah | 1413–1414 | Assassinated byRaja Ganesha |
| Alauddin Firuz Shah I | 1414 | Son of Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah. Assassinated by Raja Ganesha |
In 2009 a coin of a ruler named Nasiruddin Ibrahim Shah was found in Bangladesh, which was struck in 818 AH (around 1416 CE). It is possible he was a claimant to the throne. An undated coin of another ruler called Siraj-al Din Sikandar Shah was found in southwestern Bengal in 2014. MD. Sharif Islam theorizes that this Siraj-al Din is the same Siraj-al Din mentioned by Riyaz As Salatin, who was a judge serving under Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah.[144]
| Name | Reign | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Raja Ganesha | 1414–1415 | |
| Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah | 1415–1416 | Son of Raja Ganesha and converted into Islam |
| Raja Ganesha | 1416–1418 | Second Phase |
| Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah | 1418–1433 | Second Phase |
| Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah | 1433–1435 |
Two ephemeral rulers: Qutbuddin Azam Shah and Ghiyasuddin Nusrat Shah ruled Eastern Bengal for a brief period and struck coins in AH 837 (1434 CE). Siraj-al Din Sikandar Shah is only known from his undated coins, it is possible he ruled in this time period. It is not known if any of them were related to Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah or the Ilyas Shahis.[145]
| Name | Reign | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah I | 1435–1459 | |
| Rukunuddin Barbak Shah | 1459–1474 | |
| Shamsuddin Yusuf Shah | 1474–1481 | |
| Sikandar Shah II | 1481 | |
| Jalaluddin Fateh Shah | 1481–1487 |
| Name | Reign | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Shahzada Barbak | 1487 | |
| Saifuddin Firuz Shah | 1487–1489 | |
| Mahmud Shah II | 1489–1490 | |
| Shamsuddin Muzaffar Shah | 1490–1494 |
| Name | Reign | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Alauddin Hussain Shah | 1494–1518 | |
| Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah | 1518–1533 | |
| Alauddin Firuz Shah II | 1533 | |
| Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah | 1533–1538 |
| Name | Reign | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Khidr Khan | 1539–1541 | Declared independence in 1541 and was replaced |
| Qazi Fazilat | 1541–1545 | |
| Muhammad Khan Sur | 1545–1554 | Declared independence upon the death ofIslam Shah Suri |
| Name | Reign | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Muhammad Khan Sur | 1554–1555 | Declared independence and styled himself asShamsuddin Muhammad Shah |
| Ghiyasuddin Bahadur Shah II | 1555–1561 | |
| Ghiyasuddin Jalal Shah | 1561–1563 | |
| Ghiyasuddin Bahadur Shah III | 1563–1564 |
| Name | Reign | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Taj Khan Karrani | 1564–1566 | |
| Sulaiman Khan Karrani | 1566–1572 | |
| Bayazid Khan Karrani | 1572 | |
| Daud Khan Karrani | 1572–1576 | Last independent Sultan of Bengal Sultanate |
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Shah-i-Bangalah, Shah-i-Bangaliyan and Sultan-i-Bangalah
Turk-Afghan Rule: Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji's invasion to Bengal marked the advent of Turk-Afghan rule in Bengal.
Although the Afghans formed a large group in the army of the Delhi Sultanat, only few Afghan nobles had been accorded important positions. That is why Bakhtiyar Khalji who was part - Afghan had to seek his fortune in Bihar and Bengal.
In their embassy to Bengal, at the time under the control of the Afghan Hussain Shahi dynasty,
Though he was a valiant fighter in the battlefield, yet, he had to give in to the tricks and military game-plans used by the generals of the army of Alauddin Hussain Shah (c1493—1519), the Afghan ruler of Gaur.
Chandradwip-Bakla was the kingdom of Chandradwip, founded by Danuj Rai. This Hindu Kingdom was annexed by Sultan Alauddin Huasain Shah to his Kingdom in the 15th century A. D. ... Chandrawip-Bakla continued to be a vassal state to Muslim Sultanate until the end of the Husain Shahi rule.
TheSri Rajmala indicates that the periodic invasions of Tripura by the Bengal sultans were part of the same strategy [to control the sub-Himalayan routes from the south-eastern delta]. Mines of coarse gold were found in Tripura.
Some of them [items exported from Bengal to China] were probably re-exports. The Bengal ports possibly functioned as entrepots in Western routes in the trade with China.
Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.
24°52′0″N88°8′0″E / 24.86667°N 88.13333°E /24.86667; 88.13333
