Bengali culture, particularly itsliterature,music,art and cinema, are well known in South Asia and beyond. The region is also notable for its economic and social scientists, which includes severalNobel laureates. Once home to the city with the highest per capita income level in British India,[9] the region is today a leader in South Asia in terms ofgender parity, thegender pay gap and other indices ofhuman development.[10][11][12][13][14]
The name ofBengal is derived from the ancient kingdom ofVanga (pronounced Bôngô),[15][16] the earliest records of which date back to theMahabharata epic in thefirst millennium BCE.[16] The land of Vaṅga later came to be known as Vaṅgāla (Bāṅgālā) and its earliest reference is in theComilla copperplates (720 CE) of earlier BuddhistDeva King Ananda Deva, where he was mentioned asSri Vaṅgāla Mrīgānka, means the moon of Bengal.[17][18] The reference to 'Vangalam' is present in an inscription in theBrihadisvara Temple atThanjavur, which is one of the oldest references to Bengal.[19] The termVangaladesa is used to describe the region in 11th-century South Indian records.[20][21][22] The modern termBangla is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of theSultanate of Bengal, whose first rulerShamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as theShah of Bangala.[23] Arab geographersAhmad ibn Majid andSulaiman Al Mahri also mentions the region as'Bangala' and the 'land of Bang'.[24] ThePortuguese referred to the region asBengala in theAge of Discovery.[25]
Neolithic sites have been found in several parts of the region.[26] In the second millennium BCE, rice-cultivating communities dotted the region. By the eleventh century BCE, people in Bengal lived in systematically aligned homes, produced copper objects, and crafted black and red pottery. Remnants ofCopper Age settlements are located in the region.[27] At the advent of theIron Age, people in Bengal adopted iron-based weapons, tools and irrigation equipment.[28] From 600 BCE, the second wave of urbanisation engulfed the north Indian subcontinent as part of theNorthern Black Polished Ware culture. Ancient archaeological sites and cities inDihar,Pandu Rajar Dhibi,Mahasthangarh,Chandraketugarh andWari-Bateshwar emerged. TheGanges,Brahmaputra andMeghna rivers were natural arteries for communication and transportation.[29]Estuaries on theBay of Bengal allowed formaritime trade with distant lands in Southeast Asia and elsewhere.[29]
The ancient geopolitical divisions of Bengal includedVarendra,Suhma,Anga,Vanga,Samatata andHarikela. These regions were often independent or under the rule of larger empires. The MahasthanBrahmi Inscription indicates that Bengal was ruled by theMauryan Empire in the 3rd century BCE.[30] The inscription was an administrative order instructing relief for a distressed segment of the population.[30]Punch-marked coins found in the region indicate thatcoins were used as currency during the Iron Age.[31][32] The namesake of Bengal is the ancient Vanga Kingdom which was reputed as a naval power with overseas colonies. A prince from Bengal namedVijaya founded the first kingdom inSri Lanka. The two most prominent pan-Indian empires of this period included the Mauryans and theGupta Empire. The region was a centre of artistic, political, social, spiritual and scientific thinking, including the invention ofchess,Indian numerals, and the concept ofzero.[33]
The region was known to the ancientGreeks andRomans asGangaridai.[34] The Greek ambassadorMegasthenes chronicled its military strength and dominance of theGanges delta. The invasion army ofAlexander the Great was deterred by the accounts of Gangaridai's power in 325 BCE, including acavalry ofwar elephants. Later Roman accounts noted maritime trade routes with Bengal. 1st century Roman coins with images ofHercules were found in the region and point to trade links withRoman Egypt through theRed Sea.[35] TheWari-Bateshwar ruins are believed to be the emporium (trading centre) of Sounagoura mentioned by Roman geographerClaudius Ptolemy.[36][37] A Roman amphora was found inPurba Medinipur district of West Bengal which was made inAelana (present-day Aqaba,Jordan) between the 4th and 7th centuries AD.[38]
Buddhist palm leaf manuscript, 10th century CE.
The first unified Bengali polity can be traced to the reign ofShashanka. The origins of theBengali calendar can be traced to his reign. Shashanka founded theGauda Kingdom. After Shashanka's death, Bengal experienced a period of civil war known as Matsyanyayam.[39] The ancient city ofGauda later gave birth to thePala Empire. The first Pala emperorGopala I was chosen by an assembly of chieftains in Gauda. The Pala kingdom grew into one of the largest empires in the Indian subcontinent. The Pala period saw advances in linguistics, sculpture, painting, and education. The empire achieved its greatest territorial extent underDharmapala andDevapala. The Palas vied for control ofKannauj with the rivalGurjara-Pratihara andRashtrakuta dynasties. Pala influence also extended toTibet andSumatra due to the travels and preachings ofAtisa. The university ofNalanda was established by the Palas. They also built theSomapura Mahavihara, which was the largest monastic institution in the subcontinent. The rule of the Palas eventually disintegrated. TheChandra dynasty ruled southeastern Bengal andArakan. TheVarman dynasty ruled parts of northeastern Bengal andAssam. TheSena dynasty emerged as the main successor of the Palas by the 11th century. The Senas were a resurgent Hindu dynasty which ruled much of Bengal. The smallerDeva dynasty also ruled parts of the region. Ancient Chinese visitors likeXuanzang provided elaborate accounts of Bengal's cities and monastic institutions.[40]
Muslim trade with Bengal flourished after the fall of theSasanian Empire and theArab takeover of Persian trade routes. Much of this trade occurred with southeastern Bengal in areas east of theMeghna River. Bengal was probably used as a transit route to China by the earliest Muslims.Abbasid coins have been discovered in the archaeological ruins ofPaharpur andMainamati.[41] A collection of Sasanian,Umayyad and Abbasid coins are preserved in theBangladesh National Museum.[42]
Chinese manuscript showing an African giraffe gifted to China by theSultan of Bengal in 1414
In 1204, theGhurid generalMuhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji began the Islamic conquest of Bengal.[43] The fall of Lakhnauti was recounted by historians circa 1243. Lakhnauti was the capital of the Sena dynasty. According to historical accounts, Ghurid cavalry swept across the Gangetic plains towards Bengal. They entered the Bengali capital disguised as horse traders. Once inside the royal compound, Bakhtiyar and his horsemen swiftly overpowered the guards of the Sena king who had just sat down to eat a meal. The king then hastily fled to the forest with his followers.[44] The overthrow of the Sena king has been described as a coup d'état, which "inaugurated an era, lasting over five centuries, during which most of Bengal was dominated by rulers professing the Islamic faith. In itself this was not exceptional, since from about this time until the eighteenth century, Muslim sovereigns ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent. What was exceptional, however, was that among India's interior provinces only in Bengal—a region approximately the size of England and Scotland combined—did a majority of the indigenous population adopt the religion of the ruling class, Islam".[44] Bengal became a province of theDelhi Sultanate. A coin featuring a horseman was issued to celebrate the Muslim conquest of Lakhnauti with inscriptions in Sanskrit and Arabic. An abortiveIslamic invasion of Tibet was also mounted by Bakhtiyar. Bengal was under the formal rule of the Delhi Sultanate for approximately 150 years. Delhi struggled to consolidate control over Bengal. Rebel governors often sought to assert autonomy or independence. SultanIltutmish re-established control over Bengal in 1225 after suppressing the rebels. Due to the considerable overland distance, Delhi's authority in Bengal was relatively weak. It was left to local governors to expand territory and bring new areas under Muslim rule, such as through theConquest of Sylhet in 1303.
In 1338, new rebellions sprung up in Bengal's three main towns. Governors in Lakhnauti,Satgaon andSonargaon declared independence from Delhi. This allowed the ruler of Sonargaon,Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, to annexeChittagong to the Islamic administration. By 1352, the ruler of Satgaon,Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, unified the region into an independent state. Ilyas Shah established his capital inPandua.[45] The new breakaway state emerged as theBengal Sultanate, which developed into a territorial, mercantile and maritime empire. At the time, theIslamic world stretched fromMuslim Spain in the west to Bengal in the east.
The initial raids of Ilyas Shah saw the first Muslim army enterNepal and stretched fromVaranasi in the west toOrissa in the south toAssam in the east.[46] The Delhi army continued to fend off the new Bengali army. TheBengal-Delhi War ended in 1359 when Delhi recognised the independence of Bengal. Ilyas Shah's sonSikandar Shah defeated Delhi SultanFiruz Shah Tughluq during the Siege of Ekdala Fort. A subsequent peace treaty recognised Bengal's independence and Sikandar Shah was gifted a golden crown by the Sultan of Delhi.[47] The ruler ofArakan sought refuge in Bengal during the reign ofGhiyasuddin Azam Shah.Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah later helped the Arakanese king to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming atributary state of the Bengal Sultanate. Bengali influence in Arakan persisted for 300 years.[48] Bengal also helped the king of Tripura to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming a tributary state. The ruler of theJaunpur Sultanate also sought refuge in Bengal.[49] Thevassal states of Bengal included Arakan, Tripura,Chandradwip andPratapgarh. At its peak, the Bengal Sultanate's territory included parts of Arakan, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and Tripura.[7] The Bengal Sultanate experienced its greatest military success underAlauddin Hussain Shah, who was proclaimed as the conqueror of Assam after his forces led byShah Ismail Ghazi overthrew theKhen dynasty and annexed large parts of Assam. In maritime trade, the Bengal Sultanate benefited fromIndian Ocean trade networks and emerged as a hub ofre-exports. A giraffe was brought by African envoys fromMalindi to Bengal's court and was later gifted toImperial China. Ship-owing merchants acted as envoys of the Sultan while travelling to different regions in Asia and Africa. Many rich Bengali merchants lived in Malacca.[50] Bengali ships transported embassies fromBrunei,Aceh andMalacca to China. Bengal and theMaldives had a vast trade inshell currency.[51] The Sultan of Bengal donated funds to build schools in theHejaz region of Arabia.[52]
The five dynastic periods of the Bengal Sultanate spanned from theIlyas Shahi dynasty, to a period of rule by Bengali converts, to theHussain Shahi dynasty, to a period of rule by Abyssinian usurpers; an interruption by theSuri dynasty; and ended with theKarrani dynasty. TheBattle of Raj Mahal and the capture ofDaud Khan Karrani marked the end of the Bengal Sultanate during the reign ofMughal EmperorAkbar. In the late 16th century, a confederation called theBaro-Bhuyan resisted Mughal invasions in eastern Bengal. The Baro-Bhuyan included twelve Muslim and Hindu leaders of theZamindars of Bengal. They were led byIsa Khan, a former prime minister of the Bengal Sultanate. By the 17th century, the Mughals were able to fully absorb the region to their empire.
Mughal Bengal had the richest elite and was the wealthiest region in the subcontinent. Bengal's trade and wealth impressed the Mughals so much that it was described as theParadise of the Nations by theMughal Emperors.[53] A new provincial capital was built inDhaka. Members of the imperial family were appointed to positions in Mughal Bengal, including the position of governor (subedar). Dhaka became a centre of palace intrigue and politics. Some of the most prominent governors includedRajput generalMan Singh I, EmperorShah Jahan's son PrinceShah Shuja, EmperorAurangzeb's son and later Mughal emperorAzam Shah, and the influential aristocratShaista Khan. During the tenure of Shaista Khan, the Portuguese and Arakanese were expelled from the port of Chittagong in 1666. Bengal became the eastern frontier of the Mughal administration. By the 18th century, Bengal became home to a semi-independent aristocracy led by theNawabs of Bengal.[54] Bengal premierMurshid Quli Khan managed to curtail the influence of the governor due to his rivalry with Prince Azam Shah. Khan controlled Bengal's finances since he was in charge of the treasury. He shifted the provincial capital from Dhaka toMurshidabad.
In 1717, the Mughal court in Delhi recognised the hereditary monarchy of the Nawab of Bengal. The ruler was officially titled as the "Nawab of Bengal,Bihar andOrissa", as the Nawab ruled over the three regions in the eastern subcontinent. The Nawabs began issuing their own coins but continued to pledge nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor. The wealth of Bengal was vital for the Mughal court because Delhi received its biggest share of revenue from the Nawab's court. The Nawabs presided over a period of unprecedented economic growth and prosperity, including an era of growing organisation in textiles, banking, a military-industrial complex, the production of fine qualityhandicrafts, and other trades. A process ofproto-industrialisation was underway. Under the Nawabs, the streets of Bengali cities were filled with brokers, workers, peons, naibs, wakils, and ordinary traders.[55] The Nawab's state was a major exporter ofBengal muslin, silk,gunpowder andsaltpetre. The Nawabs also permitted European trading companies to operate in Bengal, including theBritish East India Company, theFrench East India Company, theDanish East India Company, theAustrian East India Company, theOstend Company, and theDutch East India Company. The Nawabs were also suspicious of the growing influence of these companies.
Bengali manuscript painting, 17th century.
Under Mughal rule, Bengal was a centre of the worldwidemuslin and silk trades. During the Mughal era, the most important centre of cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia.[56] Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% ofDutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.[57] From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold inIndonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,[58] cotton cloth was exported to the Americas and the Indian Ocean.[59] Bengal also had a largeshipbuilding industry. In terms of shipbuilding tonnage during the 16th–18th centuries, economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the annual output of Bengal at 223,250 tons, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.[60]
Since the 16th century, European traders traversed the sea routes to Bengal, following the Portuguese conquests of Malacca and Goa. The Portuguese established asettlement in Chittagong with permission from the Bengal Sultanate in 1528 but were later expelled by the Mughals in 1666. In the 18th century, the Mughal Court rapidly disintegrated due toNader Shah's invasion and internal rebellions, allowing European colonial powers to set up trading posts across the territory. The British East India Company eventually emerged as the foremost military power in the region; and defeated the last independent Nawab of Bengal at theBattle of Plassey in 1757.[54]
Company policies led to the deindustrialisation of Bengal's textile industry.[65] The capital amassed by the East India Company in Bengal was invested in the emergingIndustrial Revolution inGreat Britain, in industries such astextile manufacturing.[64][66] Economic mismanagement, alongside drought and a smallpox epidemic, directly led to the Great Bengal famine of 1770, which is estimated to have caused the deaths of between 1 million and 10 million people.[67][68][69][70]
Bengal roofs seen on Mughal architecture, c. 1600s
In 1876, about 200,000 people were killed in Bengal by theGreat Backerganj Cyclone of 1876 in theBarisal region.[72] About 50 million were killed in Bengal due to massive plague outbreaks and famines which happened in 1895 to 1920, mostly in western Bengal.[73]
TheIndian Rebellion of 1857 was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Chittagong, Jalpaiguri, Sylhet and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts in North India. The failure of the rebellion led to the abolition of theCompany Rule in India and establishment of direct rule over India by the British, commonly referred to as theBritish Raj. The late 19th and early 20th centuryBengal Renaissance had a great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal and started a great advance in the literature and science of Bengal. Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made todivide the province of Bengal into two: Bengal proper and the short-lived province ofEastern Bengal and Assam where theAll India Muslim League was founded.[74] In 1911, the Bengali poet and polymathRabindranath Tagore became Asia's first Nobel laureate when he won theNobel Prize in Literature.
On 27 April 1947, the lastPrime Minister of BengalHuseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy held a press conference in New Delhi where he outlined his vision for an independent Bengal. Suhrawardy said "Let us pause for a moment to consider what Bengal can be if it remains united. It will be a great country, indeed the richest and the most prosperous in India capable of giving to its people a high standard of living, where a great people will be able to rise to the fullest height of their stature, a land that will truly be plentiful. It will be rich in agriculture, rich in industry and commerce and in course of time it will be one of the powerful and progressive states of the world. If Bengal remains united this will be no dream, no fantasy".[78] On 2 June 1947,British Prime MinisterClement Attlee told theUS Ambassador to the United Kingdom that there was a "distinct possibility Bengal might decide against partition and against joining either Hindustan or Pakistan".[79]
On 3 June 1947, theMountbatten Plan outlined thepartition of British India. On 20 June, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to decide on the partition of Bengal. At the preliminary joint meeting, it was decided (126 votes to 90) that if the province remained united, it should join theConstituent Assembly of Pakistan. At a separate meeting of legislators fromWest Bengal, it was decided (58 votes to 21) that the province should be partitioned and West Bengal should join theConstituent Assembly of India. At another meeting of legislators fromEast Bengal, it was decided (106 votes to 35) that the province should not be partitioned and (107 votes to 34) that East Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly ofPakistan if Bengal was partitioned.[80] On 6 July, theSylhet district of Assam voted in areferendum to join East Bengal.
The English barristerCyril Radcliffe was instructed to draw the borders of Pakistan and India. TheRadcliffe Line created the boundary between theDominion of India and theDominion of Pakistan, which later became theBangladesh-India border. The Radcliffe Line awarded two-thirds of Bengal as the eastern wing of Pakistan, although the historic Bengali capitals ofGaur,Pandua,Murshidabad and Calcutta fell on the Indian side close to the border with Pakistan. Dhaka's status as a capital was also restored.
Most of the Bengal region lies in theGanges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the riversGanges,Brahmaputra, andMeghna rivers and their respective tributaries. The total area of Bengal is 237,212 square kilometres (91,588 sq mi)—West Bengal is 88,752 km2 (34,267 sq mi) and Bangladesh 148,460 km2 (57,321 sq mi).
The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates thegeography of Bangladesh. TheChittagong Hill Tracts andSylhet region are home to most of themountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of Bangladesh are within 10 metres (33 feet) above the sea level, and it is believed that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 metre (3.3 feet).[81] Because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons.The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres (3,451 feet).[82] A major part of the coastline comprises amarshyjungle, theSundarbans, the largestmangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including theroyal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered.[83]
West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from theHimalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of 88,752 km2 (34,267 sq mi).[84] TheDarjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region containsSandakfu (3,636 m (11,929 ft))—the highest peak of the state.[85] The narrowTerai region separates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. TheRarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and thewestern plateau and high lands. A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.
At least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh havearsenic levels in groundwater above the World Health Organization maximum permissible limit of 50 μg/L or 50 parts per billion and the untreated water is unfit for human consumption.[86] The water causes arsenicosis, skin cancer and various other complications in the body.
Geographic distinctions
Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world, seen from a tea garden in Bangladesh. Kangchenjunga is often visible from the plains ofTetulia in the northernmost tip of Bangladesh.
North Bengal
North Bengal is a term used for the north-western part of Bangladesh and northern part of West Bengal. The Bangladeshi part comprisesRajshahi Division andRangpur Division. Generally, it is the area lying west ofJamuna River and north ofPadma River, and includes theBarind Tract. Politically, West Bengal's part comprisesJalpaiguri Division and most ofMalda division (exceptMurshidabad district) together and Bihar's parts includeKishanganj district.Darjeeling Hilly are also part of North Bengal. The people of Jaipaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar usually identify themselves as North Bengali. North Bengal is divided intoTerai andDooars regions. North Bengal is also noted for its rich cultural heritage, including two UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Aside from the Bengali majority, North Bengal is home to many other communities including Nepalis,Santhal people, Lepchas and Rajbongshis.
Northeast Bengal
Tanguar Haor inSunamganj District, Bangladesh. Haor are a common sight in the Northeast of Bengal.
Northeast Bengal[87] refers to the Sylhet region, which today comprises theSylhet Division of Bangladesh andKarimganj district in the Indian state ofAssam. The region is famous for its fertile land terrain, many rivers, extensive tea plantations, rainforests and wetlands. TheBrahmaputra andBarak river are the geographic markers of the area. The city ofSylhet is its largest urban centre, and the region is known for its unique regionalSylheti language. The ancient name of the region is Srihatta and Nasratshahi.[88] The region was ruled by theKamarupa andHarikela kingdoms as well as theBengal Sultanate. It later became a district of theMughal Empire. Alongside the predominant Bengali population resides a smallGaro,Bishnupriya Manipuri,Khasia and other tribal minorities.[88]
Central Bengal, one of the most urban and developed regions in Bengal
Central Bengal
Central Bengal refers to theDhaka Division of Bangladesh. It includes the elevatedMadhupur tract with a largeSal tree forest. The Padma River cuts through the southern part of the region, separating the greaterFaridpur region. In the north lies the greaterMymensingh andTangail regions.
Cox's Bazar in southeastern Bangladesh is home to the longest natural sea beach in the world with an unbroken length of 120 km (75 mi). It is also a growingsurfing destination.[98]St. Martin's Island, off the coast of Chittagong Division, is home to the solecoral reef in Bengal.
Other regions
Today,Standard Bengali is still spoken in areas beside Bengal proper, including the Barak Valley, Tripura and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Bengal was a regional power of the Indian subcontinent. The administrative jurisdiction of Bengal historically extended beyond the territory of Bengal proper. In the 9th century, the Pala Empire of Bengal ruled large parts of northern India. The Bengal Sultanate controlled Bengal, Assam, Arakan, Bihar and Orissa at different periods in history. In Mughal Bengal, the Nawab of Bengal had a jurisdiction covering Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Bengal's administrative jurisdiction reached its greatest extent under the British Empire, when the Bengal Presidency extended from the Straits of Malacca in the east to the Khyber Pass in the west. In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, administrative reorganisation drastically reduced the territory of Bengal.
Several regions bordering Bengal proper continue to have high levels of Bengali influence. The Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali majority population. Bengali influence is also prevalent in the Indian regions of Assam, Meghalaya, Bihar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; as well as in Myanmar's Rakhine State.
Arakan
Bengal and Arakan in 1638.
Arakan (nowRakhine State,Myanmar) has historically been under strong Bengali influence. Since antiquity, Bengal has influenced the culture of Arakan. The ancient Bengali script was used in Arakan.[99] An Arakanese inscription recorded the reign of the BengaliCandra dynasty.Paul Wheatley described the "Indianization" of Arakan.[100]
According toPamela Gutman, "Arakan was ruled by kings who adopted Indian titles and traditions to suit their own environment. Indian Brahmins conducted royal ceremonies, Buddhist monks spread their teachings, traders came and went and artists and architects used Indian models for inspiration. In the later period, there was also influence from the Islamic courts of Bengal and Delhi".[101] Arakan emerged as avassal state of theBengal Sultanate.[102] It later became an independent kingdom. The royal court and culture of theKingdom of Mrauk U was heavily influenced by Bengal.Bengali Muslims served in the royal court as ministers and military commanders.[102]Bengali Hindus andBengali Buddhists served as priests. Some of the most important poets of medievalBengali literature lived in Arakan, includingAlaol andDaulat Qazi.[103] In 1660,Prince Shah Shuja, the governor of Mughal Bengal and a pretender of thePeacock Throne of India, was forced to seek asylum in Arakan.[104][105] Bengali influence in the Arakanese royal court persisted until Burmese annexation in the 18th century.
The modern-dayRohingya population is a legacy of Bengal's influence on Arakan.[106][103] TheRohingya genocide resulted in the displacement of over a million people between 2016 and 2017, with many being uprooted from their homes in Rakhine State.
The Indian state ofAssam shares many cultural similarities with Bengal. The Assamese language uses the same script as the Bengali language. TheBarak Valley has a Bengali-speaking majority population. During thePartition of India, Assam was also partitioned along with Bengal. TheSylhet Division joinedEast Bengal in Pakistan, with the exception ofKarimganj which joined Indian Assam. Previously, East Bengal and Assam were part of a single province calledEastern Bengal and Assam between 1905 and 1912 under theBritish Raj.[107]
Assam and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms, includingKamarupa,Gauda andKamata. Large parts of Assam were annexed byAlauddin Hussain Shah during the Bengal Sultanate.[108] Assam was one of the few regions in the subcontinent to successfully resist Mughal expansion and never fell completely under Mughal rule.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Bengali is the most spoken language among the population of theAndaman and Nicobar Islands, a strategically important archipelago which is controlled by India as a federal territory. The islands were once used as a British penal colony. DuringWorld War II, the islands were seized by the Japanese and controlled by theProvisional Government of Free India. Anti-British leaderSubhash Chandra Bose visited and renamed the islands. Between 1949 and 1971, the Indian government resettled manyBengali Hindus in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.[109]
Bihar
Bengal in 1880, including Bihar, Orissa and Assam.
In antiquity, Bihar and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms. The ancient region ofMagadha covered both Bihar and Bengal. Magadha was the birthplace or bastion of several pan-Indian empires, including theMauryan Empire, theGupta Empire and thePala Empire. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa together formed a single province under theMughal Empire. The Nawab of Bengal was styled as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.[110]
Extent of the Bengal Presidency between 1858 and 1867, including the Straits Settlements
Through trade, settlements and the exchange of ideas; parts ofMaritime Southeast Asia became linked with Bengal.[114][115] Language, literature, art, governing systems, religions and philosophies in ancientSumatra andJava were influenced by Bengal.Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in Southeast Asia depended on the Bay of Bengal for trade and ideas.Islam in Southeast Asia also spread through the Bay of Bengal, which was a bridge between the Malay Archipelago and Indo-Islamic states of the Indian subcontinent.[116][117] A large number of wealthy merchants from Bengal were based in Malacca.[50] Bengali ships were the largest ships in the waters of the Malay Archipelago during the 15th century.[118]
A sepoy of theBengal Army, which played a key role in the expansion of the Bengal Presidency into the northern reaches of India up to theKhyber Pass.
The ancient Mauryan, Gupta andPala empires of theMagadha region (Bihar and Bengal) extended into northern India. The westernmost border of the Bengal Sultanate extended towardsVaranasi andJaunpur.[121][49] In the 19th century,Punjab and theCeded and Conquered Provinces formed the western extent of the Bengal Presidency. According to the British historianRosie Llewellyn-Jones, "The Bengal Presidency, an administrative division introduced by the East India Company, would later include not only the whole of northern India up to the Khyber Pass on the north-west frontier with Afghanistan, but would spread eastwards to Burma and Singapore as well".[122]
Odisha
Odisha, previously known as Orissa, has a significant Bengali minority. Historically, the region has faced invasions from Bengal, including an invasion byShamsuddin Ilyas Shah.[123] Parts of the region were ruled by theBengal Sultanate andMughal Bengal. TheNawab of Bengal was styled as the "Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa" because the Nawab was granted jurisdiction over Orissa by theMughal Emperor.[110]
Theprincely state of Tripura was ruled by theManikya dynasty until the 1949Tripura Merger Agreement. Tripura was historically avassal state of Bengal. After assuming the throne with military support from the Bengal Sultanate in 1464,Ratna Manikya I introduced administrative reforms inspired by the government of Bengal. The Tripura kings requested SultanBarbak Shah to provide manpower for developing the administration of Tripura. As a result,Bengali Hindu bureaucrats, cultivators and artisans began settling in Tripura.[127] Today, the Indian state ofTripura has a Bengali-majority population. Modern Tripura is a gateway for trade and transport links betweenBangladesh andNortheast India.[128][129] InBengali culture, the celebrated singerS. D. Burman was a member of the Tripura royal family.
The flat Bengal Plain, which covers most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, is one of the mostfertile areas on Earth, with lush vegetation and farmland dominating its landscape. Bengali villages are buried among groves ofmango,jackfruit,betel nut anddate palm. Rice,jute,mustard andsugarcane plantations are a common sight.Water bodies andwetlands provide a habitat for many aquatic plants in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. The northern part of the region features Himalayan foothills (Dooars) with densely woodedSal and other tropicalevergreen trees.[130][131] Above an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the forest becomes predominantly subtropical, with a predominance of temperate-forest trees such asoaks,conifers andrhododendrons. Sal woodland is also found across central Bangladesh, particularly in theBhawal National Park. TheLawachara National Park is arainforest in northeastern Bangladesh.[132] The Chittagong Hill Tracts in southeastern Bangladesh is noted for its high degree ofbiodiversity.[133]
The state of Bangladesh is aparliamentary republic based on theWestminster system, with awritten constitution and aPresident elected by parliament for mostly ceremonial purposes. Thegovernment is headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the President from among the popularly elected 300 Members of Parliament in theJatiyo Sangshad, the national parliament. The Prime Minister is traditionally the leader of the single largest party in the Jatiyo Sangshad. Under the constitution, while recognisingIslam as the country'sestablished religion, the constitution grantsfreedom of religion to non-Muslims.
Between 1975 and 1990, Bangladesh had apresidential system of government. Since the 1990s, it was administered by non-political technocraticcaretaker governments on four occasions, the last being under military-backed emergency rule in 2007 and 2008. TheAwami League and theBangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) were the two most dominant political parties in Bangladesh until theJuly Revolution of 2024, which led to the ousting ofSheikh Hasina following mass protests and a nationwide uprising. In the aftermath, a non-partisaninterim government was formed under Nobel laureateMuhammad Yunus to restore democratic governance and oversee institutional reforms. Much like the technocratic caretaker governments between 1990 and 2008, this interim administration pledged neutrality and began preparations for constitutional changes and future elections.
West Bengal is a constituent state of theRepublic of India, with localexecutives andassemblies- features shared with other states in the Indian federal system. Thepresident of India appoints a governor as the ceremonial representative of theunion government. The governor appoints thechief minister on the nomination of the legislative assembly. The chief minister is the traditionally the leader of the party or coalition with most seats in the assembly.President's rule is often imposed in Indian states as a direct intervention of the union government led by theprime minister of India. The Bengali-speaking zone of India carries 48 seats in the lower house of India,Lok Sabha.
Each state has popularly elected members in the Indian lower house of parliament, theLok Sabha. Each state nominates members to the Indian upper house of parliament, theRajya Sabha.
A meeting between the naval commanders of India and Bangladesh
India and Bangladesh are the world's first and eighth most populous countries respectively.Bangladesh-India relations began on a high note in 1971 when India played a major role in theliberation of Bangladesh, with the Indian Bengali populace and media providing overwhelming support to the independence movement in the former East Pakistan. The two countries had a twenty five-year friendship treaty between 1972 and 1996. However, differences over river sharing, border security and access to trade have long plagued the relationship. In more recent years, a consensus has evolved in both countries on the importance of developing good relations, as well as a strategic partnership in South Asia and beyond. Commercial, cultural and defence co-operation have expanded since 2010, when Prime MinistersSheikh Hasina andManmohan Singh pledged to reinvigorate ties.
The Bangladesh High Commission in New Delhi operates a Deputy High Commission inKolkata and a consular office inAgartala. India has a High Commission inDhaka with consulates inChittagong andRajshahi. Frequent international air, bus and rail services connect major cities in Bangladesh and Indian Bengal, particularly the three largest cities- Dhaka, Kolkata and Chittagong. Undocumented immigration of Bangladeshi workers is a controversial issue championed by right-wing nationalist parties in India but finds little sympathy in West Bengal.[138] India has since fenced the border which has been criticised by Bangladesh.[139]
DowntownDhakaKolkata skyline consists ofThe 42, the tallest building in Bengal region, and the tallest building inIndia outsideMumbai.
TheGanges Delta provided advantages of fertile soil, ample water, and an abundance of fish, wildlife, and fruit.[140] Living standards for Bengal's elite were relatively better than other parts of theIndian subcontinent.[140] Between 400 and 1200, Bengal had a well-developed economy in terms of land ownership, agriculture, livestock, shipping, trade, commerce, taxation, and banking.[141] The apparent vibrancy of the Bengal economy in the beginning of the 15th century is attributed to the end of tribute payments to theDelhi Sultanate, which ceased after the creation of theBengal Sultanate and stopped the outflow of wealth.Ma Huan's travelogue recorded a booming shipbuilding industry and significantinternational trade in Bengal.
In 1338,Ibn Battuta noticed that the silver taka was the most popular currency in the region instead of the Islamicdinar.[142] In 1415, members ofAdmiral Zheng He's entourage also noticed the dominance of the taka. The currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty for theSultan of Bengal. The Sultanate of Bengal established an estimated 27mints in provincial capitals across the kingdom.[143][144] These provincial capitals were known as Mint Towns.[145] These Mint Towns formed an integral aspect of governance and administration in Bengal.
The taka continued to be issued inMughal Bengal, which inherited the sultanate's legacy. As Bengal became more prosperous and integrated into theworld economy under Mughal rule, the taka replaced shell currency in rural areas and became the standardisedlegal tender. It was also used in commerce with theDutch East India Company, theFrench East India Company, theDanish East India Company and theBritish East India Company. Under Mughal rule, Bengal was the centre of the worldwidemuslin trade. Themuslin trade in Bengal was patronised by the Mughal imperial court. Muslin from Bengal was worn by aristocratic ladies in courts as far away as Europe, Persia and Central Asia. The treasury of theNawab of Bengal was the biggest source of revenue for the imperial Mughal court in Delhi. Bengal had a largeshipbuilding industry. The shipbuilding output of Bengal during the 16th and 17th centuries stood at 223,250tons annually, which was higher than the volume of shipbuilding in the nineteen colonies of North America between 1769 and 1771.[60]
Historically, Bengal has been the industrial leader of the subcontinent. Mughal Bengal saw the emergence of a proto-industrial economy backed up by textiles and gunpowder. The organised early modern economy flourished till the beginning of British rule in the mid 18th-century, when the region underwent radical and revolutionary changes in government, trade, and regulation. The British displaced the indigenous ruling class and transferred much of the region's wealth back to the colonial metropole in Britain. In the 19th century, the British began investing in railways and limited industrialisation. However, the Bengali economy was dominated by trade in raw materials during much of the colonial period, particularly thejute trade.[146]
Thepartition of India changed the economic geography of the region. Calcutta in West Bengal inherited a thriving industrial base from the colonial period, particularly in terms of jute processing. East Pakistan soon developed its industrial base, including theworld's largest jute mill. In 1972, the newly independent government of Bangladesh nationalised 580 industrial plants. These industries were later privatised in the late 1970s as Bangladesh moved towards a market-oriented economy.Liberal reforms in 1991 paved the way for a major expansion of Bangladesh's private sector industry, including in telecoms, natural gas, textiles, pharmaceuticals, ceramics, steel and shipbuilding. In 2022, Bangladesh was the second largest economy in South Asia after India.[147][148]
Bangladesh and India are the largest trading partners in South Asia, with two-way trade valued at an estimated US$16 billion.[150] Most of this trade relationship is centred on some of the world's busiestland ports on theBangladesh-India border. TheBangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Initiative seeks to boost trade through a Regional Motor Vehicles Agreement.[151]
The Bengal region is one of themost densely populated areas in the world. With a population of 300 million,Bengalis are the third largest ethnic group in the world after theHan Chinese andArabs.[b]According to provisional results of 2011 Bangladesh census, the population of Bangladesh was 149,772,364;[152] however, CIA'sThe World Factbook gives 163,654,860 as its population in a July 2013 estimate. According to the provisional results of the 2011 Indian national census, West Bengal has a population of 91,347,736.[153] "So, the Bengal region, as of 2011[update], has at least 241.1 million people. This figures give a population density of 1003.9/km2; making it among the most densely populated areas in the world.[154][155]
Bengali is the main language spoken in Bengal. Many phonological, lexical, and structural differences from the standard variety occur in peripheral varieties of Bengali across the region. Other regional languages closely related to Bengali includeSylheti,Chittagonian,Chakma,Rangpuri/Rajbangshi,Hajong,Rohingya, andTangchangya.[156]
According to the 2011 Indian census, 18% of the Bengali-speakers are bilingual of whom half can speakHindi, and 5% are trilingual.[157]
Life expectancy is around 72.49 years for Bangladesh[161] and 70.2 for West Bengal.[162][163] In terms of literacy, West Bengal leads with 77% literacy rate,[154] in Bangladesh the rate is approximately 72.9%.[164][c] The level of poverty in West Bengal is at 19.98%, while in Bangladesh it stands at 12.9%[165][166][167]
West Bengal has one of the lowest total fertility rates in India. West Bengal's TFR of 1.6 roughly equals that of Canada.[168]
Bengali binds together a culturally diverse region and is an important contributor to regional identity. The 1952Bengali language movement in East Pakistan is commemorated byUNESCO asInternational Mother Language Day, as part of global efforts to preserve linguistic identity.
A silver coin with Proto-Bengali script, 9th century
In bothBangladesh andWest Bengal, currency is commonly denominated as taka. TheBangladesh taka is an official standard bearer of this tradition, while theIndian rupee is also written as taka in Bengali script on all of its banknotes. Thehistory of the taka dates back centuries. Bengal was home one of the world's earliest coin currencies in the first millennium BCE. Under the Delhi Sultanate, the taka was introduced byMuhammad bin Tughluq in 1329. Bengal became the stronghold of the taka. The silver currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty of theSultanate of Bengal. It was traded on theSilk Road and replicated inNepal and China'sTibetan protectorate. ThePakistani rupee was scripted in Bengali as taka on its banknotes until Bangladesh's creation in 1971.
TheBangamata is a femalepersonification of Bengal which was created during theBengali Renaissance and later adopted by theBengali nationalists.[177]Hindu nationalists adopted a modifiedBharat Mata as a national personification of India.[178] The Mother Bengal represents not only biological motherness but its attributed characteristics as well – protection, never ending love, consolation, care, the beginning and the end of life. InAmar Sonar Bangla, the national anthem of Bangladesh,Rabindranath Tagore has used the word "Maa" (Mother) numerous times to refer to the motherland i.e. Bengal.
Bangladeshi paintings on sale at an art gallery in Dhaka
The Pala-Sena School of Art developed in Bengal between the 8th and 12th centuries and is considered a high point of classical Asian art.[179][180] It included sculptures and paintings.[181]
Islamic Bengal was noted for its production of the finest cotton fabrics andsaris, notably theJamdani, which received warrants from the Mughal court.[182] TheBengal School of painting flourished inKolkata andShantiniketan in theBritish Raj during the early 20th century. Its practitioners were among the harbingers of modern painting in India.[183]Zainul Abedin was the pioneer of modernBangladeshi art. The country has a thriving and internationally acclaimedcontemporary art scene.[184]
Classical Bengali architecture featuresterracotta buildings. Ancient Bengali kingdoms laid the foundations of the region's architectural heritage through the construction of monasteries and temples (for example, theSomapura Mahavihara). During thesultanate period, a distinct and glorious Islamic style of architecture developed the region.[185] Most Islamic buildings were small and highly artistic terracotta mosques with multiple domes and no minarets. Bengal was also home to the largest mosque in South Asia atAdina. Bengali vernacular architecture is credited for inspiring the popularity of thebungalow.[186]
In the 1950s,Muzharul Islam pioneered the modernist terracotta style of architecture in South Asia. This was followed by the design of theJatiyo Sangshad Bhaban by the renowned American architectLouis Kahn in the 1960s, which was based on the aesthetic heritage of Bengali architecture and geography.[187][188]
The educational reforms during theBritish Raj gave birth to many distinguished scientists in Bengal. SirJagadish Chandra Bose pioneered the investigation of radio andmicrowaveoptics, made significant contributions toplant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent.[190]IEEE named him one of thefathers of radio science.[191] He was the first person from the Indian subcontinent to receive aUS patent, in 1904. In 1924–25, while researching at the University of Dhaka,Satyendra Nath Bose well known for his works inquantum mechanics, provided the foundation forBose–Einstein statistics and the theory of theBose–Einstein condensate.[192][193][194]Meghnad Saha was the first scientist to relate a star's spectrum to its temperature, developing thermal ionization equations (notably theSaha ionization equation) that have been foundational in the fields of astrophysics and astrochemistry.[195]Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri was a physicist, known for his research in general relativity and cosmology. His most significant contribution is the eponymousRaychaudhuri equation, which demonstrates that singularities arise inevitably in general relativity and is a key ingredient in the proofs of the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems.[196]
In the United States, the Bangladeshi-American engineerFazlur Rahman Khan emerged as the "father of tubular designs" in skyscraper construction.Ashoke Sen is an Indian theoretical physicist whose main area of work is string theory. He was among the first recipients of theFundamental Physics Prize "for opening the path to the realisation that all string theories are different limits of the same underlying theory".[197]
TheBaul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music.[198] The 19th century mystic poetLalon Shah is the most celebrated practitioner of the tradition.[199] Other folk music forms includeGombhira,Bhatiali andBhawaiya.Hason Raja is a renowned folk poet of the Sylhet region. Folk music in Bengal is often accompanied by theektara, a one-stringed instrument. Other instruments include thedotara,dhol, flute, andtabla. The region also has a rich heritage inNorth Indian classical music.
Bengali cuisine is the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from the Indian subcontinent. Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods, leading to a saying that "fish and rice make a Bengali".[200] Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includesHilsa preparations, a favourite among Bengalis. Bengalis make distinctivesweetmeats from milk products, includingRôshogolla,Chômchôm, and several kinds ofPithe. The old city of Dhaka is noted for its distinct Indo-Islamic cuisine, includingbiryani,bakarkhani andkebab dishes.
There are 150 types of Bengali country boats plying the700 rivers of the Bengal delta, the vastfloodplain and manyoxbow lakes. They vary in design and size. The boats include thedinghy andsampan among others. Country boats are a central element ofBengali culture and have inspired generations of artists and poets, including the ivory artisans of the Mughal era. The country has a long shipbuilding tradition, dating back many centuries. Wooden boats are made of timber such asJarul (dipterocarpus turbinatus), sal (shorea robusta),sundari (heritiera fomes), andBurma teak (tectons grandis). Medieval Bengal was shipbuilding hub for theMughal andOttoman navies.[201][202] The BritishRoyal Navy later utilised Bengali shipyards in the 19th century, including for theBattle of Trafalgar.
Attire
Traditional bride of Bangladesh
Bengali women commonly wear theshaŗi, often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear Western-style attire. Among men, European dressing has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as thepanjabi[203] withdhoti orpyjama, often on religious occasions. Thelungi, a kind of long skirt, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men.[citation needed]
Bangladesh has a diverse, outspoken and privately ownedpress. English-language titles are popular in the urban readership.[204] West Bengal had 559 published newspapers in 2005,[205] of which 430 were in Bengali, with the largest circulatedBengali language newspapers and magazines in the world.[205]Bengali cinema is divided between the media hubs of Dhaka and Kolkata.
Cricket andfootball are popular sports in the Bengal region. Local games include sports such asKho Kho andKabaddi, the latter being the national sport of Bangladesh. An Indo-BangladeshBengali Games has been organised among the athletes of the Bengali speaking areas of the two countries.[206]
^abDavid Lewis (31 October 2011). Bangladesh: Politics, Economy and Civil Society. Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-1-139-50257-3.
^Perween Hasan (2007). Sultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh. I.B.Tauris. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-1-84511-381-0. "[Husayn Shah pushed] its western frontier past Bihar up to Saran in Jaunpur ... when Sultan Husayn Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur fled to Bengal after being defeated in battle by Sultan Sikandar Lodhi of Delhi, the latter attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Jaunpur ruler. Unable to make any gains, Sikandar Lodhi returned home after concluding a peace treaty with the Bengal sultan."
^Keay, John (2000).India: A History. Atlantic Monthly Press. p. 220.ISBN978-0-87113-800-2.In C1020 ... launched Rajendra's great northern escapade ... peoples he defeated have been tentatively identified ... 'Vangala-desa where the rain water never stopped' sounds like a fair description of Bengal in the monsoon.
^abPerween Hasan (2007).Sultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh. I.B.Tauris. pp. 16–17.ISBN978-1-84511-381-0.[Husayn Shah pushed] its western frontier past Bihar up to Saran in Jaunpur ... when Sultan Husayn Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur fled to Bengal after being defeated in battle by Sultan Sikandar Lodhi of Delhi, the latter attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Jaunpur ruler. Unable to make any gains, Sikandar Lodhi returned home after concluding a peace treaty with the Bengal sultan.
^abIrfan Habib (2011). Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500. Pearson Education India. p. 185. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1.
^Om Prakash, "Empire, Mughal",History of World Trade Since 1450, edited byJohn J. McCusker, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2006, pp. 237–240,World History in Context. Retrieved 3 August 2017
^Datta, Rajat (2000).Society, economy, and the market : commercialization in rural Bengal, c. 1760–1800. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors. pp. 262, 266.ISBN81-7304-341-8.OCLC44927255.
^The "Gandhians" of Bengal: Nationalism, Social Reconstruction and Cultural Orientations 1920–1942. p. 19.Malaria was endemic in rural areas during the 19th century, particularly in western Bengal. This was ... The famine of 1769–70 resulted in about ten million deaths, while 50 million died of malaria, plague and famine between 1895 and 19206.
^Banu, U. A. B. Razia Akter (1992).Islam in Bangladesh. Brill. p. 6.ISBN978-90-04-09497-0. Retrieved7 January 2017.in Samatata (South-east Bengal) where the Buddhist Khadaga dynasty ruled throughout the fifth, sixth and seventh centuries AD.
^"Three medallions above the head contain sacred syllables in proto-Bengali script".Pamela Gutman andZaw Min Yu, 'Vesali', Burma's Lost Kingdoms: Splendours of Arakan (Orchid Press 2001). p. 57
^Pamela Gutman and Zaw Min Yu, Burma's Lost Kingdoms: Splendours of Arakan (Orchid Press 2001). p. 3
^Pamela Gutman and Zaw Min Yu, Burma's Lost Kingdoms: Splendours of Arakan (Orchid Press 2001). p. 8
^Sarkar, J. N. (1992), "Chapter II The Turko-Afghan Invasions", in Barpujari, H. K. (ed.), The Comprehensive History of Assam, vol. 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 35–48
^Ghosh, Suchandra (2013). "Locating South Eastern Bengal in the Buddhist Network of Bay of Bengal (C. 7th Century CE-13th Century CE)".Proceedings of the Indian History Congress.74:148–153.JSTOR44158810.
^Tapan Raychaudhuri; Irfan Habib, eds. (1982). The Cambridge Economic History of India. Vol. I. Cambridge University Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-521-22692-9.
^Jarman, J. L. (Ed). (1998). Annual reports of the Straits Settlements 1855–1941 (Vol 1: 1855–1867, pp. 3–4). Slough, UK: Archive Editions. Call no.: RSING English 959.51 STR.
^Chattopadhyay, S. S. (June 2007)."Constant traffic".Frontline. Vol. 24, no. 11. Archived from the original on 17 April 2008. Retrieved26 February 2008.
^"2011 Population & Housing Census: Preliminary Results"(PDF). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Statistics Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. July 2011. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 15 January 2013. Retrieved17 November 2013.
^"Contents 2010–14"(PDF). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India.Archived(PDF) from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved12 January 2017.
^"Abridged Life Tables- 2010–14"(PDF). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. p. 5.Archived(PDF) from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved12 January 2017.
^"Worldview".worldviewcities.org.Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved7 January 2017.
^"Worldview".worldviewcities.org.Archived from the original on 2 January 2017. Retrieved7 January 2017.
^Koshy, Thomas (2002).Elementary Number Theory with Applications. Harcourt / Academic press. p. 567.ISBN0-12-421171-2.
^Chatterjee, Santimay; Chatterjee, Enakshi (1976).Satyendra Nath Bose. New Delhi: National Book Trust. pp. 5–6.OCLC3017431.
^Sen, A. K. (1997). "Sir J. C. Bose and radio science".Microwave Symposium Digest. IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium. Denver, CO: IEEE. pp. 557–560.doi:10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602854.ISBN0-7803-3814-6.
^O'Connor, J J; Robertson, E F (October 2003)."Satyendranath Bose". The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.Archived from the original on 16 January 2017.
^Kean, Sam (2017)."A forgotten star".Distillations.3 (1):4–5. Retrieved22 March 2018.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
-1.jpg)
.jpg)
_with_modern_borders.png)
..jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
