Abean is the seed of plants in manygenera of thelegume family (Fabaceae) used as avegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are sold fresh or preserved throughdrying (apulse). Beans have been cultivated since the seventh millennium BCE in Thailand, and since the second millennium BCE in Europe and in Peru. Most beans, with the exception of peas, are summer crops. As legumes, the plantsfix nitrogen and form seeds with a high protein content. They are produced on a scale of millions of tons annually in many countries; India is the largest producer.
Dried beans are traditionally soaked and boiled, and used in traditional dishes throughout the world including salads, soups, and stews such aschili con carne. Some are processed intotofu; others are fermented to formtempeh. Guar beans are used fortheir gum. The unripe seedpods of some varieties are also eaten whole asgreen beans oredamame (immaturesoybean). Some types aresprouted to form beansprouts.
Many fully ripened beans contain toxins likephytohaemagglutinin and require cooking to make them safe to eat. Many species contain indigestibleoligosaccharides that produceflatulence. Beans have traditionally been seen as a food of the poor.
Etymology and naming
The word "bean" and its Germaniccognates (e.g.GermanBohne) have existed in common use inWest Germanic languages since before the 12th century,[1] referring tobroad beans,chickpeas, and other pod-borne seeds. This was long before theNew World genusPhaseolus was known in Europe. With theColumbian exchange of domestic plants between Europe and the Americas, use of the word was extended to pod-borne seeds ofPhaseolus, such as thecommon bean and therunner bean, and the related genusVigna. The term has long been applied generally to seeds of similar form, such as Old Worldsoybeans andlupins, and to the fruits or seeds of unrelated plants such ascoffee beans andvanilla beans.[2] This article discusses only legumes.
Beans in an early cultivated form were grown in Thailand from the early seventh millennium BCE, predating ceramics.[3] Beans were deposited with the dead inancient Egypt. Not until the second millennium BCE did cultivated, large-seeded broad beans appear in theAegean region,Iberia, and transalpine Europe.[4] In theIliad (8th century BCE), there is a passing mention of beans andchickpeas cast on the threshing floor.[5]
The oldest-known domesticated beans in the Americas were found inGuitarrero Cave,Peru, dated to around the second millennium BCE.[6] Genetic analyses of the common beanPhaseolus show that it originated inMesoamerica, and subsequently spread southward.[7]
Most of the kinds of beans commonly eaten today are part of the genusPhaseolus, which originated in the Americas. The first European to encounter them wasChristopher Columbus, while exploring what may have been theBahamas, and saw them growing in fields. Five kinds ofPhaseolus beans were domesticated by pre-Columbian peoples, selectingpods that did not open and scatter their seeds when ripe: common beans (P. vulgaris) grown from Chile to the northern part of the United States; lima and sieva beans (P. lunatus); and the less widely distributed teparies (P. acutifolius), scarlet runner beans (P. coccineus), and polyanthus beans.[8]
Thebiodiversity of bean cultivars is threatened by modern plant breeding, which selects a small number of the most productive varieties. Efforts are being made to conserve thegermplasm of older varieties in different countries.[20][21] As of 2023, the NorwegianSvalbard Global Seed Vault holds more than 40,000accessions ofPhaseolus bean species.[22]
Cultivation
Agronomy
Many beans are summer crops that need warm temperatures to grow, with peas as an exception. Legumes are capable ofnitrogen fixation and hence need less fertiliser than most plants. Maturity is typically 55–60 days from planting to harvest.[23] As the pods mature, they turn yellow and dry up, and the beans inside change from green to their mature colour. Many beans arevines needing external support, such as "bean cages" or poles. Native Americans customarily grew them along with corn and squash, the tall stalks acting as support for the beans.[24]
More recently, the commercial "bush bean" which does not require support and produces all its pods simultaneously has been developed.[25]
Per capita production decreased. (Population grew 2.4×)
Oil crops (dry)
Soybeans [236]
26.88
88.53
177.02
323.20
334.89
12.46
Increase driven by animal feeds and oil.
Groundnuts, with shell [242]
14.13
20.58
35.82
45.08
43.98
3.11
Fresh vegetables (80–90% water)
Beans, green [414]
2.63
4.09
10.92
23.12
23.60
8.96
Peas, green [417]
3.79
5.66
12.41
19.44
19.88
5.25
Top producers, pulses [1726][a] (million metric tons)
Country
2016
Share
Total
81.80
100%
1
India
17.56
21.47%
2
Canada
8.20
10.03%
3
Myanmar
6.57
8.03%
4
China
4.23
5.17%
5
Nigeria
3.09
3.78%
6
Russia
2.94
3.60%
7
Ethiopia
2.73
3.34%
8
Brazil
2.62
3.21%
9
Australia
2.52
3.09%
10
United States
2.44
2.98%
11
Niger
2.06
2.51%
12
Tanzania
2.00
2.45%
Others
24.82
30.34%
The world leader in production of dry beans (Phaseolus spp),[b] is India, followed by Myanmar (Burma) and Brazil. In Africa, the most important producer is Tanzania.[28]
Beans can be cooked in a wide variety ofcasseroles,curries,salads,soups, andstews. They can be served whole or mashed alongside meat or toast, or included in anomelette or aflatbread wrap.[30] Other options are to include them in a bake with acheese sauce, a Mexican-stylechili con carne, or to use them as a meat substitute in aburger or infalafels.[31] The Frenchcassoulet is a slow-cooked stew with haricot beans, sausage, pork, mutton, and preserved goose.[32] Soybeans can be processed into bean curd (tofu)[33] or fermented into a cake (tempeh);[34] these can be eaten fried or roasted like meat, or included in stir-fries, curries, and soups.[35][36][37] Most dry beans contain 21–25%protein by weight;[38] drysoybeans are 36.5% protein by weight.[39]
Some kinds of raw beans contain a harmful, flavourless toxin: thelectinphytohaemagglutinin, which must be destroyed by cooking. Redkidney beans are particularly toxic, but other types also pose risks offood poisoning. Even small quantities (4 or 5 raw beans) may cause severe stomachache, vomiting, and diarrhea. This risk does not apply tocanned beans because they have already been cooked.[41] A recommended method is to boil the beans for at least ten minutes; under-cooked beans may be more toxic than raw beans.[42]
Beans need to be cooked thoroughly to destroy toxins;slow cooking is unsafe as it makes the beans soft without necessarily destroying the toxins.[42] A case of poisoning bybutter beans used to makefalafel was reported; the beans were used instead of traditionalbroad beans orchickpeas, soaked and ground without boiling, made into patties, andshallow fried.[43]
Bean poisoning is not well known in the medical community, and many cases may be misdiagnosed or never reported; figures appear not to be available. In the case of the United KingdomNational Poisons Information Service, available only to health professionals, the dangers of beans other than red beans were not flagged as of 2008[update].[43]
Fermentation is used in some parts of Africa to make beans more digestible by removing toxins.[44]
Other hazards
It is common to makebeansprouts by letting some types of bean, oftenmung beans, germinate in moist and warm conditions; beansprouts may be used as ingredients in cooked dishes, or eaten raw or lightly cooked. There have been manyoutbreaks of disease from bacterial contamination, often bysalmonella,listeria, andEscherichia coli, of beansprouts not thoroughly cooked,[45] some causing significant mortality.[46]
Many types of bean, such as kidney beans, contain significant amounts ofantinutrients that inhibit some enzyme processes in the body.Phytic acid, present in beans, interferes with bone growth and interruptsvitamin D metabolism.[47][48]
Many beans, including broad beans, navy beans, kidney beans and soybeans, contain large sugar molecules,oligosaccharides (particularlyraffinose andstachyose). A suitable oligosaccharide-cleavingenzyme is necessary to digest these. As the human digestive tract does not contain such enzymes, consumed oligosaccharides are digested bybacteria in the large intestine, producing gases such as methane, released asflatulence.[49][50][51][52]
Beans have traditionally been considered a food of the poor, as farmers ate grains and vegetables, obtaining their protein from beans, whereas the wealthier classes could afford meat. European society has what Ken Albala calls "a class-based antagonism" to beans.[53]
Different cultures agree in disliking the flatulence that beans cause, and possess their own seasonings to attempt to remedy it: Mexico uses the herbepazote; India the aromatic resinasafoetida; Germany applies the herbsavory; in the Middle East,cumin; and Japan the seaweedkombu. A substance for which there is evidence of effectiveness in reducing flatulence is the enzymealpha-galactosidase;[53] extracted from themould fungusAspergillus niger, it breaks downglycolipids andglycoproteins.[54][55] The reputation of beans for flatulence is the theme of a children's song "Beans, Beans, the Musical Fruit".[56]
TheMexican jumping bean is a segment of a seed pod occupied by thelarva of the mothCydia saltitans, and sold as a novelty. The pods start to jump when warmed in the palm of the hand. Scientists have suggested that the random walk that results may help the larva to find shade and so to survive on hot days.[57]
^Mt. Pleasant, Jane (2006). "The science behind the Three Sisters mound system: An agronomic assessment of an indigenous agricultural system in the northeast". In Staller, John E.; Tykot, Robert H.; Benz, Bruce F. (eds.).Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize. Amsterdam: Academic Press. pp. 529–537.ISBN978-0-1236-9364-8.
^Pardo B., Oriana; Pizarro, José Luis (2014).Chile: Plantas alimentarias Prehispánicas (in Spanish) (2015 ed.).Arica, Chile: Ediciones Parina. p. 162.ISBN978-9569120022.
^Tarhani, Fariba; Nezami, Alireza; Heidari, Ghobad; Abdolkarimi, Babak (18 August 2020). "Clinical Manifestations and Therapeutic Findings of the Children with Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency Presenting Favism".Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders Drug Targets.21 (6):1125–1129.doi:10.2174/1871530320999200818182905.PMID32811422.S2CID221182334.
^Shimelis, Emire Admassu; Rakshit, Sudip Kumar (2008). "Influence of natural and controlled fermentations on α-galactosides, antinutrients and protein digestibility of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)".International Journal of Food Science & Technology.43 (4):658–665.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2006.01506.x.ISSN1365-2621.
^McGee, Harold (2003).Food and Cooking. Simon & Schuster. p. 486.ISBN978-0684843285.Many legumes, especially soy, navy and lima beans, cause a sudden increase in bacterial activity and gas production a few hours after they're consumed. This is because they contain large amounts of carbohydrates that human digestive enzymes can't convert into absorbable sugars. These carbohydrates therefore leave the upper intestine unchanged and enter the lower reaches, where our resident bacterial population does the job we are unable to do.
^Barham, Peter (2001).The Science of Cooking. Springer. p. 14.ISBN978-3-540-67466-5.we do not possess any enzymes that are capable of breaking down larger sugars, such as raffinose etc. These 3, 4 and 5 ring sugars are made by plants especially as part of the energy storage system in seeds and beans. If these sugars are ingested, they can't be broken down in the intestines; rather, they travel into the colon, where various bacteria digest them
^abAlbala, Ken (15 August 2007).Beans. Oxford: Berg. pp. x, xiv, 1, 12.ISBN978-1-84520-430-3.
^Di Stefano, Michele; Miceli, Emanuela; Gotti, Samantha; Missanelli, Antonio; Mazzocchi, Samanta; Corazza, Gino Roberto (2007). "The Effect of Oral α-Galactosidase on Intestinal Gas Production and Gas-Related Symptoms".Digestive Diseases and Sciences.52 (1):78–83.doi:10.1007/s10620-006-9296-9.PMID17151807.
^Ganiats, T. G.; Norcross, W. A.; Halverson, A. L.; Burford, P. A.; Palinkas, L. A. (1994). "Does Beano prevent gas? A double-blind crossover study of oral alpha-galactosidase to treat dietary oligosaccharide intolerance".The Journal of Family Practice.39 (5):441–445.PMID7964541.
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