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Battle of the Downs
Part of theEighty Years' War and theThirty Years' War
The Battle of the Downs Willem van de Velde the Younger, 1659
Date 21 October 1639 Location NearThe Downs,English Channel Result Dutch victory
Belligerents
Spain  Portugal[a]	Dutch Republic
Commanders and leaders
Antonio de Oquendo Lope de Hoces † Miguel de Horna	Maarten Tromp Witte de With Joost Banckert Johan Evertsen
Strength
22galleys, 29galleons, 13frigates, 6,500 sailors, 8,000 marines, 30 transports carrying 9,000 soldiers[1][b]	95 warships[c][2]
Casualties and losses
35–40 ships 5,000 sailors or marines 3,000 soldiers captured or interned in England[3]	100–1,000 men 1–10 ships lost

TheBattle ofthe Downs took place on 21 October 1639 (New Style), during theEighty Years' War. ASpanish fleet, commanded by AdmiralAntonio de Oquendo, was decisively defeated by aDutch force under Lieutenant-AdmiralMaarten Tromp. Victory ended Spanish efforts to re-assert naval control over theEnglish Channel and confirmed Dutch dominance of the sea lanes, while it is also alleged to be the first major action to featureline of battle tactics.

The battle was initiated when Spanish chief ministerOlivares sent a large convoy of troops and supplies for theArmy of Flanders, escorted by some 50 warships. Since 1621, Spanish naval activity in the Channel had focused on avoiding direct conflict with the superior Dutch fleet, while attacking theirmerchant ships fromprivateering bases inDunkirk andOstend. In a change from this policy, Oquendo was ordered to deliver the reinforcements but also bring the Dutch to battle; Olivares hoped victory would restore Spanish prestige and force theStates General to negotiate peace terms.

The Spanish entered the Channel on 11 September and were intercepted by the Dutch in a series of actions between 16 and 18 September. Losses on both sides were minimal, but Oquendo took refuge inThe Downs, an anchorage between the ports ofDover andDeal, where he was protected by English neutrality. Although blockaded here by the Dutch fleet, most of the reinforcements were transported to Dunkirk via small, fastfrigates.

On 21 October, the Dutch entered the Downs and attacked the Spanish fleet withfireships. Unable to manoeuvre in the cramped waters and with the wind against them, the Spanish lost around ten ships captured or destroyed, while another twelve deliberately ran themselves ashore to avoid capture. Combined withthe repulse of a similar-sized expedition againstDutch Brazil in January 1640, this marked the end of attempts to challenge Dutch maritime supremacy and an acceptance by the Spanish court that the war could not be won.

When theFranco-Spanish War began in 1635,Spain was already engaged in theEighty Years War with theDutch Republic, as well as supportingEmperor Ferdinand II in theThirty Years War. Although theSpanish Empire had far greater resources than any of its opponents, fighting on multiple fronts forced them to rely on long and vulnerable lines of communication. The most important was theSpanish Road, an overland route funnelling troops and supplies from their possessions inItaly to theArmy of Flanders. This was crucial for the war in the Netherlands since Dutch naval superiority made it difficult to send these by sea.^[4]

In December 1638, a French-backed army underBernard of Saxe-Weimar capturedBreisach inAlsace, severing the Spanish Road (see map). However, the Spanish defeated Dutch attacks onDunkirk andOstend in theSpanish Netherlands, and despite a French naval victory atGetaria in August, forced them to retreat fromFuenterrabía. This encouraged chief ministerOlivares to reassert Spanish naval prestige by sending a large convoy to reinforce Flanders.^[5] Stripping 22galleys from theMediterranean, combined with a hurried construction program, meant that by August 1639 Olivares had assembled a fleet of around 50 warships along with a number of smaller vessels, manned by 6,500 sailors and 8,000 marines.^[1]

In addition, 9,000 reinforcements and three millionescudos for the Army of Flanders were carried in 30 transports, which included ships chartered from Germany andEngland, contracted under an agreement withCharles I.^[6] Dating back to the early 1630s and known as the "English Road", this took advantage of English neutrality to ship supplies and men toDover, where they transferred to small, fast vessels for the trip across theEnglish Channel to Dunkirk.^[7] In May, a flotilla of nine ships used this route to transport 1,500 men to Flanders, one of many similar transfers that took place over the years.^[8]

Since 1621, the Spanish had avoided major conflict with the Dutch fleet in favour of raids conducted by the Dunkirk-basedArmada de Flandes andlocal privateers on their commercial shipping, their efforts peaking under admiralFrancisco de Ribera. In October 1637,Lope de Hoces, commander of theArmada de Coruña, transported 5,000 men fromA Coruña to Dunkirk, then captured over 20 Dutch merchant ships on his return voyage.^[9] Now confident enough to seek a full-scale battle, Olivares offered him command of the expedition, but de Hoces was sceptical of his own ability to defeat the Dutch, especially given that the galleys which formed a significant part of his force were far less effective in the Channel. He refused the position, which passed instead toAntonio de Oquendo, admiral in the Mediterranean. Olivares expected the Dutch would try to prevent delivery of the reinforcements, giving Oquendo the opportunity to bring them to battle.^[1]

Advised of these movements, theStates General began preparing the main Dutch fleet for action. While this was being done, a squadron led byMaarten Tromp was ordered to sea to monitor and harass the Spanish if needed, although he was forbidden from engaging them in battle until joined by the rest of the fleet, some fifty vessels underJohan Evertsen. Tromp divided his force into three; 12 ships underJoost Banckert^[d] were positioned north of the Downs, in the unlikely event the Spanish took the long route around theBritish Isles. Five ships underWitte de With^[e] patrolled the English side of the Channel, while the remaining 12 under Tromp^[f] monitored the French coast.^[13]

Attempts by the French admiralHenri de Sourdis to disrupt Spanish preparations failed and the fleet sailed on 27 August, entering the Channel on 11 September.^[14] Ships of different squadrons were mixed through the formation, an attempt to ensure smaller ships would be supported by larger ones. Thevanguard was composed of thirteen ships from theArmada de Flandes underMiguel de Horna, since they had the most experience in these waters; De Horna himself accompanied Oquendo on board his flagship.^[8]

On 15 September, they learned from a passing English ship that a Dutch squadron was anchored nearCalais and the next day made contact with Tromp. Following his instructions, Oquendo adopted a half-moon formation, placing his flagship on the right flank; despite being outnumbered, Tromp placed his squadron intoline of battle and attacked.^[15] During theFight in the Channel Oquendo used the same tactics employed in his 1631 victory atAbrolhos, where he had destroyed the Dutch flagship in a single ship to ship battle. He failed to issue adequate instructions to his subordinates and negated his superior numbers by constantly seeking to engage Tromp's flagship. This manoeuver, however, was effected without warning the rest of the Spanish fleet. Some of the ships near Oquendo turned with him, others were confused and maintained bearing. The half-moon formation quickly disintegrated, and only the Dunkirk squadron and the galleonSan Juan kept up with the Spanish flagship's pursuit of Tromp.

Had Oquendo given the order for a line, the immense Spanish fleet could have probably encircled and dispatched the Dutch squadron in a few hours. However, Oquendo seemed intent on boarding the Dutch flagship. When he finally decided to turn for a shot, he did it too late and sailed past Tromp's stern. Trying to correct his error, Oquendo attempted to board the second ship in the Dutch column. The latter also avoided him. Oquendo's flagship and one of the Dunkirk ships, theSantiago, were now downwind and on the receiving end of the cannonades of the remaining nine ships of the Dutch column. Tromp turned his column and went for another round on theSantiago. Oquendo, the other six Dunkirk ships and theSan Juan, unable to turn upwind, fired as they could. The artillery did little damage, but Spanish musketry picked off many on the Dutch decks.

This encounter lasted for three hours, in the course of which the Dutch shipGroot Christoffel accidentally exploded. By noon, the six ships of theWitte de With column had reached Tromp, and increased his number to 16. Although the rest of the Spanish fleet remained dispersed and disorganized, many units had finally turned and were also approaching from the other side. For Tromp, this was building up into a dangerous situation, as the Spanish units upwind would cut off his exit, and force the Dutch squadron to turn into the shoals of the bay ofBoulogne and almost certainly run aground. However, at this moment, Oquendo ordered the Spanish fleet to resume a half-moon formation. The Spanish ships turned, allowing Tromp's squadron to turn also, gain the wind, and escape the danger.

There were no more engagements that evening. The fleets anchored in, and the next day, rear-admiralJoost Banckert arrived, bringing the total Dutch fleet to thirty-two. But there was no engagement, just preparations for what was to become known as the Battle of the Downs.

The Spanish, whose priority was to protect the troops, not to endanger them by continuing the battle, took refuge inThe Downs, an anchorage between the English ports of Dover andDeal, near an English squadron commanded by Vice-AdmiralJohn Pennington. Ocquendo ordered 13 of his Dunkirker squadron, composed of light, fastfrigates, to head north at night round theGoodwin Sands; although the Dutch later sealed this exit, they arrived in Dunkirk with 3,000 troops and all the bullion intended to pay the Army of Flanders. Ultimately, the Spanish calculated 6,000 troops had been landed, with 1,500 captured by the Dutch and another 1,500 either killed or interned in England, which allowed Ocquendo to later claim he had largely achieved the objectives set.^[3]

On the evening of 28 September, Tromp and De With withdrew to resupply, for they were short of gunpowder. They feared they had failed in their mission until they rediscovered the Spanish at the Downs on the 30th. Together, they blockaded the Spanish and sent urgently to the Netherlands for reinforcements. The fiveDutch admiralties hired any large armed merchant ship they could find. Many joined voluntarily, hoping for a rich bounty. By the end of October, Tromp had 95 ships and 12fire ships.

Meanwhile, the Spanish, who earlier had managed to sneak 13 or 14 Dunkirker frigates through the blockade, began to transport their troops and money to Flanders on British ships under an English flag. Tromp stopped this by searching the English vessels and detaining any Spanish troops he found. Uneasy about the possible English reaction to this, he pretended to Pennington to be worried by his secret orders from theStates-General. He showed him, "confidentially", a missive commanding him to attack the Spanish armada wherever it might be located and to prevent by force of arms any interference by a third power.

Meanwhile, Tromp's patience was tested to the limit. His war council would not yet agree to an attack while the Spaniards claimed they did not have enough gunpowder to sail out. This prompted a remarkable offer from the Dutch. On 13 October, two captains on behalf of Tromp reported to Pennington that they were willing to supply the Spanish fleet with 500 barrels of gunpowder on the condition that the fleet would then immediately sail out to battle. Oquendo did not accept the offer, but conflict almost broke out anyway on the 14th when a Spanish gunman shot dead a sailor on a Dutch ship. According to Oquendo, the gunman was an incredibly stupid peasant who would be severely punished. Still, in the following days, Oquendo and Tromp both began to prepare for battle, while Pennington was given permission to withdraw in case of a battle.^[16]

On 21 October, an easterly wind giving him theweather gage, Tromp detached 30 ships under De With to prevent any interference from Pennington, while two squadrons commanded byCornelis Jol and Jan Hendriksz de Nijs blocked escape routes to the north and south respectively.^[15] He then attacked with the remainder, which included a number of fireships. Some of the large, unmanoeuverable Spanish ships panicked on approach of the Dutch fleet and grounded themselves deliberately; they were immediately plundered by the English populace, present in great numbers to watch the uncommon spectacle. Others tried a planned breakthrough.

De Oquendo's royal flagship, theSantiago, came out first followed by theSanta Teresa, the Portuguese flagship. Five blazing fireships were sent into the Spanish ships. The first Spanish ship could disengage and avoid three of the fireships at the last moment, but these hit the followingSanta Teresa, who had just managed to repel the attack of the other two. Too big (the biggest ship in the Spanish/Portuguese fleet) and slow to manoeuvre, and with no time to react, theSanta Teresa was finally grappled and set on fire by one fire ship. With AdmiralLope de Hoces already dead from his wounds, she fiercely burned with great loss of life.

The Portuguese ships were intercepted by the squadron of the Zeelandic Vice-AdmiralJohan Evertsen who launched his fireships against them: most Portuguese ships were taken or destroyed, leaving according to some reports 15,200 dead and 1,800 prisoner. The number of dead is today considered as greatly exaggerated; for example, it does not take into account that a third of the troops had already reached Flanders. De Oquendo managed to escape in the fog with about ten ships, most of themDunkirkers, and reach Dunkirk. Nine of the ships driven ashore during the battle could be later refloated and also reached Dunkirk.^[17]

According to Spanish naval historianCesáreo Fernández Duro, of the 38 ships that attempted to break the Dutch blockade, twelve beached themselves on the English shore, nine of which were later refloated and managed to reach Dunkirk. One was destroyed by a fireship and another nine captured, three being so badly damaged they sank before reaching port; another three were wrecked on the coasts of France or Flanders while trying to avoid capture.^[18]

The French diplomatComte d'Estrades, in a letter toCardinal Richelieu, claimed that the Spanish had lost thirteen ships burnt or sunk, sixteen captured with 4,000 prisoners, and lost fourteen off the coasts of France and Flanders,^[19] a figure higher than the number of Spanish ships present at the Downs.^[20] D'Estrades also reported in his letter that the Dutch had lost ten ships sunk or burnt.^[19] This source is cited byJean Le Clerc in hisHistoire des Provinces-Unies des Pays-Bas.^[21]

The Portuguese Admiral and historianIgnacio Costa Quintella gives figures of 43 ships and 6,000 men lost by the Spanish and some ships and more than 1,000 men by the Dutch.^[22]

The Dutch sources only mention the loss of one Dutch ship that got entangled with theSanta Teresa and about a hundred persons dead. Historian M.G de Boer's extensively researched book about the subject agrees with this and puts Spanish losses in ships and men at about 40 and 7,000 respectively.^[23]

The larger part of the Spanish infantry managed to reach Flanders along with nearly all the money, but the celebrated Dutch victory marked a significant moment in the shifting balance of naval power. Much of the Spanish fleet, which had been built up over several years, was destroyed, and of the ships that succeeded in breaking through the blockade, many were severely damaged. A few months later,another large Spanish expedition, this time headed forDutch Brazil, was also defeated. Spain, strained under the vast commitments of theThirty Years War, was in no position to rebuild its naval dominance.^[1][24] The two major naval defeats also had consequences for the Spanish on the Iberian mainland, where they contributed to the climate in which the Portuguese decided torevolt against the Spanish king.^[25]

The Dunkirker privateers continued to harm Dutch trade and were not defeated untilDunkirk was captured by a Franco-Dutch force in 1646. However, the continuation of Dutch naval dominance in the North Sea meant that Spanish convoys paid a heavy price in lives and ships in running the Dutch blockades. These complicated operations in the Low Countries had left the overallSpanish Habsburg forces and finances in a precarious situation.^[26] The Dutch, English, and French were quick to take advantage by seizing some small Spanish island possessions in the Caribbean. But by far the worst effects for Spain were the increased difficulties it suffered in maintaining its position in theSouthern Netherlands.

Tromp was hailed as a hero on his return and was rewarded with 10,000 guldens, invoking the jealousy of De With who only got 1,000. De With wrote some anonymouspamphlets painting Tromp as avaricious and himself as the real hero of the battle. With Spain gradually losing its dominant naval position, England weak, and France not yet in possession of a strong navy, the Dutch allowed their own navy to diminish greatly after a peace treaty was signed in 1648. So, with an ineffective naval administration and ships that were too light and too few in number, they were to find themselves at a serious disadvantage in their coming conflicts with the English. However, they were able to maintain their large mercantile advantage over other European powers, entering into a period of increasing Dutch maritime superiority, both mercantile and naval, from theSecond Anglo-Dutch War, until the onset of the 18th century.

• De Boer, Dr MG (1941).Tromp en de armada van 1639 (in Dutch).
• Duro, Cesáreo Fernández (1898).Armada Española desde la unión de los reinos de Castilla y Aragón (in Spanish). Vol. IV. Est. tipográfico Sucesores de Rivadeneyra.
• Godefroi Louis Estrades (comte d'), Charles Colbert de Croissy (marquis), Jean-Antoine de Mesmes Avaux (comte d') (1743).Lettres, memoires et négociations de Monsieur le comte d'Estrades: tant en qualité d'ambassadeur de S. M. T. C. en Italie, en Angleterre & en Hollande, que comme ambassadeur plénipotentiaire à la paix de Nimegue, conjointement avec Messieurs Colbert & comte d'Avaux. Vol. 1. J. Nourse.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Jean Le Clerc (1728).Histoire des Provinces-Unies des Pays-Bas, depuis la naissance de la République jusqu'à la Paix d'Utrecht & le Traité de la Barrière en 1716. Avec les principales médailles et leur explication. Vol. 2. L'Honoré et Chatelain.
• Ignacio da Costa Quintella (1839).Annaes da marinha portugueza. Acad. das sci. de Lisboa.
• Edmundson, George (January 1890). "Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange".The English Historical Review.5 (17). Oxford University Press:41–64.JSTOR 546555.
• R. B Prud'homme van Reine (2001).Schittering en schandaal – Biografie van Maerten en Cornelis Tromp. Arbeiderspers.
• Stradling, Robert (1979). "Catastrophe and Recovery: The Defeat of Spain, 1639–43".History.64 (11):205–219.doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1979.tb02059.x.JSTOR 24411536.
• Stradling, Robert (1992).The Armada of Flanders: Spanish Maritime Policy and European War, 1568-1668. CUP.ISBN 978-0521405348.
• O'Neill, Patrick (2014).Charles I and the Spanish Plot: Anglo-Habsburg Relations and the Outbreak of the War of Three Kingdoms, 1630-1641 (PHD). University of California.
• Warner, Oliver (1981).Great Sea Battles. Cambridge Ferndale Edns.
• Wedgwood, CV (1938).The Thirty Years War (2005 ed.). New York Review of Books.ISBN 978-1590171462.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
• Wilson, Peter H. (2009).Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War. Allen Lane.ISBN 978-0-7139-9592-3.
• Francis Vere (1955).Salt in their blood: The lives of the famous Dutch admirals. Cassell.
• J.C.M. Warnsick (1938).Drie zeventiende-eeuwsche admiraals. Piet Heyn, Witte de With, Jan Evertsen. van Kampen.
• J.C.M. Warnsick (1941).12 doorluchtige zeehelden. van Kampen.
• Panhuysen, Luc (2021).Het monsterschip: Maarten Tromp en de armada van 1639. Atlas contact.ISBN 978-9045040714.
• Klooster, Wim (2016).The Dutch moment: war, trade, and settlement in the seventeenth-century Atlantic world. Cornell University Press.

51°12′N1°30′E / 51.2°N 1.5°E /51.2; 1.5

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