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Battle of Valparaíso
Part of theWar of 1812
c. 1819 painting of the battle
Date 28 March 1814 Location offValparaíso,Chile Result British victory
Belligerents
United Kingdom	United States
Commanders and leaders
James Hillyar	David Porter
Strength
1 frigate 1 ship-sloop	1 frigate[1] 1 sloop
Casualties and losses
5 killed 10 wounded	58 killed 60 wounded 156 captured 1 frigate captured 1 sloop captured

TheBattle of Valparaíso, also called theCapture of USSEssex, was a naval action fought during theWar of 1812. It took place offValparaíso,Chile on March 28, 1814, between thefrigateUSS Essex and thesloopUSS Essex Junior of theUnited States Navy and the frigateHMS Phoebe and sloopHMS Cherub of theRoyal Navy. TheBritish ships won the battle, and the American vessels were captured.

CaptainDavid Porter of USSEssex had proposed a Pacific voyage to theSecretary of the Navy for exploration and colonization before the War of 1812 had begun. Once the war was declared, Porter flew his iconic white ensign with the words "Free Trade and Sailors rights" fromEssex which was copied onUSS Chesapeake byJames Lawrence. Porter was assigned to CommodoreWilliam Bainbridge's squadron inUSS Constitution, but he found no sign of Bainbridge at the rendezvous location atPorto Praya on theCape Verde island or on the Brazil coast.

Porter captured thePost OfficepacketNocton on 12 December 1812 laden with £15,000 of specie.Nocton was sent home as a prize but recaptured byHMS Belvidera on 5 January. He took another prize offRio de Janeiro. He then roundedCape Horn, following his command to act "for the good of the service". He was aware that the Spanish colonies were in revolt and that they might welcome a warship from the United States, and he was also aware that the British had a lucrative whaling industry and no warships in the Pacific. He planned to masqueradeEssex as the more powerfulConstitution until he arrived in the Pacific.^[2]

Porter arrived inValparaíso on 15 March 1813 where he received a warm welcome from the revolutionary government, and he took advantage of this to take on food, water, and stores forEssex. He refittedEssex for eight days, then sailed north where he captured a Peruvianprivateer. He recaptured an Americanwhaler on his way to theGalapagos Islands, and he captured 12 British whalers between 29 April and 18 September. The prizes gave him access to stores and food, but water remained short. He armed two of his prizes as auxiliary support and detached them to capture others, and two more ships were returned to their captains to ferry the prisoners to Valparaíso. Porter claimed that he did $5 million (£1.13 million) worth of damage to British commercial shipping, making him the only American frigate captain to effectively raid commerce during the War of 1812. Despite that, the only prize to reach the United States was thewhale shipAtlantic which Porter armed and renamedEssex Junior.^[3]

By September 1813,Essex needed a major refit and Porter picked up rumors that a Britishsquadron was searching for him. He refittedEssex at theMarquesas Islands, far from the American coast so as not to encounter the British. He reachedNuka Hiva on 25 October 1813 andEssex underwent a major overhaul. Porter, meanwhile, fought the island's residents and annexed it for the United States. He renamed the island Madison Island in the hope that its annexation would be ratified by PresidentMadison's administration, but the annexation was not approved.^[4] Porter next sailed to Valparaíso in the hope of encountering a British frigate, and he left Nuka Hiva on 13 December with a small squadron of prizes. He had left officers in charge of the island, but their control did not last long; they were eventually overthrown and fled toHawaii—only to be captured by the British.^[5]

On 12 January 1814,Essex arrived in Valparaíso withEssex Junior in company. TheCarrera family had supported him nine months earlier, but they were now in jail. A civil war had broken out in Chile and a Spanish counter-attack was expected.^[6]

To get to the Pacific, Porter had to cross the waters of theBritish Brazil Station which was full of ships trading in specie from South America. After the outbreak of war, the trade in silver was transferred to Navy ships includingHMS Bonne Citoyenne andHMS Nereus. Through these ships, the whereabouts of USSConstitution,USS Hornet and USSEssex was relayed to the rest of the British fleet. On 3 April 1813, Captain Heywood ofNereus reported thatEssex had arrived in Valparaíso on 15 March intent on a short stay to Rear AdmiralManley Dixon in the 74-gunHMS Montagu. Dixon commanded a squadron of the 24-pounder frigateHMS Indefatigable, four 18-pounder frigates, threesixth rates, and threesloops. By late April it was clearEssex was encountered offCape Frio in January, notConstitution. Dixon was unable to detach the sloops HMSCherub andHMS Racoon to pursueEssex as he required all the ships he could to protect the silver trade.^[3]

Captain Heywood ofNereus forwarded a letter from Brown and Watson, British merchants at Valparaíso, to Dixon on 3 June 1813 reporting the welcoming ofEssex in the harbor and thatEssex had "gone to take and destroy the English whalers on the coast". Rumors had circulated that Porter would sail across the Pacific to the coast of China with orders to "destroy, but capture nothing".^[7]

Racoon had gone toSan Salvador andPernambuco and upon her return had reported that it was clear of United States privateers andmen-of-war. Since the trade route was secure, Dixon could direct his attention to the Pacific. On 10 June HMSPhoebe and the merchant shipIsaac Todd joined Dixon's squadron. Phoebe was sent to destroy the trading post atAstoria. Dixon detachedCherub andRacoon to guard the whaling fishery, whilePhoebe's mission was modified, becoming to seek out and capture or destroyEssex. CaptainJames Hillyar ofPhoebe was to keep his mission a secret. TheAdmiralty would question whyCherub andRacoon were not detached earlier. Dixon would assert that the specie trade was a priority and that only oncePhoebe had arrived, wouldCherub andRacoon safely get to the Pacific as ifEssex had encountered the two sloops on their own, the ships being much smaller, would have surely been captured. Dixon feared thatEssex had reinforcements, which it did not, hence, he intended on detaching another frigate to accompanyPhoebe in the event thatEssex was not alone, but none were available. Hillyar was given complete discretion as Dixon was aware that new intelligence would reachPhoebe much faster than orders fromMontagu in Rio de Janeiro would, the only exception being thatPhoebe must not violate the neutrality of the Spanish colonies.^[8]

Nereus would arrive in Rio carrying 2,000,000 Spanish dollars and £100,000 in cash. Dixon would transfer this toMontagu asMontagu was a much more powerful ship and detachMontagu to Britain and switch his command with Heywood ofNereus so as not to have to detachNereus and an escort to Britain. This way, the maximum number of ships remained at Rio de Janeiro. Dixon would continue his command from smaller frigates.^[9]

Captain William Bowles ofHMS Aquilon was stationed at theBuenos Aires station to forward information toLondon about the trans-Andean trade routes and the American threat, larger issues of British trade and the disposition of Chilean politics. He intercepted letters that revealed Hillyar's secret mission. He feared that the information would get to Porter in USSEssex andEssex would escape.^[4]

Bowles successfully blocked Porter's ability to sell some prizes at Valparaíso through letters from Buenos Aires. After the fall of the Carrera family in 1813, the political situation in Chile began to favor the British. Furthermore, news ofHMS Shannon'svictory overUSS Chesapeake had arrived in Valparaíso. It was seen that the United States influence was on the decline.^[4]

On 12 July 1813 Hillyar inPhoebe sealed orders for rendezvous and locations to renew stores forIsaac Todd,Cherub, andRacoon without contact of the South American mainland. While rounding Cape Horn, the ships became separated fromIsaac Todd and in October, Hillyar received information thatEssex had taken her. Hillyar then detachedRacoon to theColumbia River to destroy the trading post at Astoria.Racoon arrived to discover that the fort had already been secured by theNorth West Company on 30 November. Hillyar found thatEssex had been sighted at theJuan Fernández Islands, Valparaíso, and the Galapagos, but didn't know where exactly to find her.^[4]

Finally, in 1814, Dixon would have enough ships to detach the frigatesTagus andNereus to reinforce Hillyar, but they would not arrive until afterEssex was taken.^[10]

Bowles received information thatEssex had arrived in Valparaíso, Chile had fallen into civil war and the Carrera family were no longer in power and forwarded it to Dixon in Rio de Janeiro and to the Admiralty in London. Bowles feared thatEssex would leave Valparaíso and capture him in HMSAquilon. This would give the impression of British weakness and hence the British would lose their influence in South America. Hillyar inPhoebe also receivedEssex's whereabouts and had no intention of allowingEssex to escape from Valparaíso.^[10]

DespiteEssex andPhoebe being nearly equal in length and tonnage, the British had the decisive advantage of carrying long guns rather than thecarronadesEssex was armed with. Furthermore,Cherub was far superior toEssex Junior.^[11]

Comparison of combatant vessels(English measurement methods used for both ships;^[12])

On 3 February the 36-gun frigatePhoebe and the 18 gun ship-rigged sloopCherub arrived at Valparaíso. Hillyar anticipated Porter's moves. Knowing that British diplomatic support was more useful to the Chileans than American support, he knewEssex could not stay long in Valparaíso. British merchant George O'Brien in theEmily sailed out of Valparaíso with intelligence aboutEssex for Hillyar inPhoebe. Mr. Cromptom and Andrew Bless gave Hillyar the latest on the political situation in Chile.^[11]

Porter had hoped for a duel, two ships against two ships and had knowingly sailed into Valparaíso to encounter the British. He now found himself blockaded by a squadron of a superior force consisting only of the very two ships he had hoped to engage. Hillyar sailed into the harbor at Valparaíso inPhoebe very close toEssex.Essex had rigged kedge anchors at the ends of its yards to grapplePhoebe and engage. NoticingEssex was ready for battle, Hillyar hauled off.^[13]

Hillyar had attempted to causeEssex to fire first and violate the Chilean neutrality, but Porter held his fire. Despite avoiding a diplomatic conflict, Porter nevertheless missed his opportunity to escape to sea whilePhoebe was in port.Essex was faster thanCherub and was known to make at least 11.4 knots (21.1 km/h; 13.1 mph),Phoebe on the other hand could sail up to 13 knots (24 km/h; 15 mph) as she was built to a lengthened design of thePerseverance-class frigate for the very purpose of increasing speed. Therefore, it was unlikely thatEssex could have successfully escaped without a fight.^[14]

The next day, Porter hoisted his ensign written "Free Trade and Sailors' Rights" to the fore topgallant masthead. To counter what Hillyar considered an "insidious effort to shake the loyalty of thoughtless British seamen",Phoebe hoisted a St George's ensign written "God and Country, British Sailors' Best Rights. Traitors Offend Both." Hillyar playedGod Save the King and the crew manned the rigging and gave three cheers. Porter then paraded his crew in Valparaíso with flags of American slogans. This propaganda attempt at gaining Chilean support was to little effect.^[15]

These displays of morals and philosophy were a reference to the causes of the War of 1812. The Americans had declared war on Britain partly because the British had been impressing American citizens from merchant ships and had cut off the American trade with France, hence, the Americans demanded "Free trade and sailors' rights". The British had asserted that the people they impressed were deserters from the Royal Navy who had been granted citizenship in the United States, hence Hillyar sent his message to the deserters that "God and Country [are a] British Sailor's Best Rights. Traitors Offend Both." Despite these bold displays of their respective national ideology, it is unlikely that the average seaman aboard either ship cared. They were more to intimidate opposing captains.^[16]

Porter agreed to exchange his British prisoners aboardEssex with Hillyar's American prisoners aboardPhoebe. At this point, all ships were docked in Valparaíso. In doing so, Hillyar confirmed thatEssex was only armed with short-range carronades, a vital piece of intelligence. Having renewed stores,Phoebe andCherub returned to sea on 14 February as Hillyar feared that ifEssex sortied, Porter would havePhoebe andCherub detained for 24 hours as not to violate Chilean neutrality. Lying just outside the range of the Chilean coastal guns(which was a common marker of the end of the neutral range)Phoebe andCherub could still send boats into the harbor to receive fresh beef and water.^[17]

On 25 February, Porter had the prizeHector towed to sea and burnt in Valparaíso harbor. This being a violation of Chilean neutrality, the Chilean governor was insulted and angry and sent dispatches to Hillyar saying he would ignore the action ifEssex would be taken into the harbor.^{[further explanation needed]} Despite his permission, Hillyar did not engage as such a violation of neutrality might be beyond the power of the governor to ignore as the United States would protest.^[18]

On 27 FebruaryEssex andEssex Junior had set sail.Phoebe was denying Porter the opportunity for a close-range engagement where his carronades would be effective. Porter fired a signal gun toEssex Junior and proceeded to fire two shots atPhoebe. Hillyar did not return fire. The American ships returned to port.

Porter would make complaints about Hillyar violating neutrality to the Chileans in an attempt to allowEssex to sortie. Hillyar asserted that Porter violated neutrality three times. First by burningHector on 25 February, by firing two shots atPhoebe on 27 February, and by attempting to board Phoebe on 12 March. Fortunately for Hillyar, dispatches had been sent to him with information about the boarding plan.^[19]

Porter then wrote a challenge to Hillyar offering a single ship duel. Numerous challenges had been written during the war of 1812. First was CaptainJames Dacres ofHMS Guerriere to CommodoreJohn Rodgers ofUSS President; Rodgers declined despite his ship being bigger and better armed. The second was Master CommandantJames Lawrence ofUSSHornet to Pitt Burnaby Greene ofHMSBonne Citoyenne; although Commodore William Bainbridge of the companion shipUSSConstitution pledged not to intervene, the British captain declined to risk his ship. The final challenge was byPhilip Broke ofHMS Shannon to James Lawrence inUSS Chesapeake; Lawrence accepted. In this sole match of equal ships during the war,Chesapeake was defeated andcaptured after a short but intense battle.

Single ship duels such asUSSConstitution vs HMSGuerriere, thecapture of HMSMacedonian, and the capture of USSChesapeake were a means for captains achieved glory and honor. Hillyar declined this challenge–unlike the all other frigate captains in the War of 1812, Hillyar had already proved himself in theBattle of Tamatave in 1811. There was no need for heroics on his part. Porter would later claim that he could have easily escaped as he had the faster ship but this was not the case.Phoebe was faster thanEssex.^[20]

Dixon detached the frigate HMSBriton to reinforce Hillyar.Nereus andTagus were already on their way. Dixon received information that the United States 44-gun super-frigates would sortie from American ports and attempt to join up with Porter. Unfortunately for Porter, the big 44-gun ships were effectively blockaded in harbors by British squadrons which included 74-gun ships of the line.^[21]

AsTagus andNereus, 18-pounder frigates, both more powerful thanEssex, began to approach the Pacific, Porter received information of their arrival. It became clear thatEssex must escape before reinforcements arrived.^[21]

Hillyar was warned that Porter would sortie on 23 March by British merchants desperate to resume trade once the threat of being captured byEssex no longer existed. Hillyar was already prepared.^[21]

On 27 March, Porter attempted to mislead Hillyar into thinking he would not sortie by sending hispurser onshore and made sure that Hillyar received information of this. That night, Porter sent Lieutenant Maury out to sea in one ofEssex's boats carrying blue lights and launching rockets. Porter hoped that Hillyar would follow this display to leeward allowingEssex to escape at daybreak. Hillyar spotted the lights, but sighting no ships he realised this was a decoy. He sent bothPhoebe andCherub to windward of whereEssex was moored anticipating Porter's plans.^[21]

The next morning, 28 March 1814, Porter was disappointed to findPhoebe andCherub close to the weather point of the bay. Hillyar wore inside and out of the point. The wind picked up from the south-southwest and Porter struck his royalmasts andyards at 2:45 pm. Soon after, one ofEssex's cables parted.Essex then made a break for the sea. Hillyar immediately sailed to cut Porter off. A suddensquall made away withEssex's main-topmast which broke off at the lower cap. Two men, Samuel Miller and Thomas Browne were lost with the topmast.^[23]

Hillyar made chase at 3:10. BothPhoebe andCherub hoistedSt George's flag written on them were the words "God and Country, British Sailors Best Rights. Traitors Offend Both"^[23]

Porter, having lost his topmast, had no hope of escape. He woreEssex to starboard and cut away the wreckage. Porter was unable to sail back into the port and dropped anchor in a small bay out of sight of the nearest Chilean fort at 3:45 at9+1⁄2 fathoms (57 ft; 17.4 m) from the shore.Essex flew threeensigns, "FREE TRADE AND SAILORS RIGHTS" from the foretop, "GOD OUR COUNTRY AND LIBERTY. TYRANTS OFFEND THEM" from the mizzen top and the United States colors from the mizzen peak.^[24]

Hillyar considered that becauseEssex was out of the range of Chilean cannon, she was in international waters. At 4:10 Hillyar signaledCherub to fight at anchor roving extra cables to the anchor so the ship could be worn around and the broadside brought to bear. He sailedPhoebe intent on bringing her broadside to bear onEssex's stern. The battle began at 4:20 at half-gunshot (250 yards; 230 m) while Phoebe was still underway.Phoebe opened onEssex's stern and starboard quarter.Cherub fired onEssex's bow. Heavy fire fromEssex's long 12-pounder chase guns caused badly wounded Commander Tucker ofCherub to move alongsidePhoebe. Tucker nevertheless remained on deck throughout the action.^[24]

Porter was desperate to bring his guns to bear. He attempted to have a spring rove into his anchor cable andEssex worn, but they were shot away before they could be used.Essex's 32-pounders, despite Porter claiming they were of no use, were of devastating effectiveness againstPhoebe.Phoebe's popular first lieutenant was mortally wounded by splinters. Hillyar was forced to increase the range at which he fought to take advantage of the range of his long 18-pounders over the 32-poundercarronades.^[25]

Hillyar had not seen that his firing was effective, butEssex had effectively launched dismantling projectiles from the long 12-pounders andPhoebe's topsails were flying loose as their sheets had been cut, the mainsail cut up, thejibboom damaged, and the fore main and mizzen stays shot away. Once out of carronade range, Hillyar had his crew mend the rigging and furl the mainsail.^[26]

Before Hillyar engaged again, he hailed Tucker to keepCherub underway instead of fighting at anchor. Hillyar approached again inPhoebe engaging with his 9-pounder chase guns and received steady fire fromEssex at 5:35. At this point the wind died down, occasionally being completely calm. Hillyar anchored at a greater range of a1⁄2 mile (0.80 km) that he had done the first time.Phoebe's long 18-pounders were effective againstEssex whileEssex's carronades were not againstPhoebe because of the distance.^[27]

When the wind picked up, Porter cut his cable and sailed towardPhoebe to board her. At 5:50 Hillyar set sail and avoidedEssex.Essex's rigging had been shredded byPhoebe makingEssex hard to control while underway.Phoebe continued to devastate the driftingEssex cutting down her crew. Hillyar had purposefully targeted the standing rigging and upper deck throughout the battle. Many of the guns aboardEssex had been disabled. A small pile of powder exploded nearEssex's main hatch.Essex's crew began to lose morale.^[28]

Porter orderedEssex to be run ashore and blown up as James Lawrence had said about USSChesapeake when HMSShannon took her. Porter was forced to surrender when the wind died down again and there was no hope of sailing on shore. Furthermore, too many of the crew were so badly wounded that they could not abandon ship. Nevertheless, 60 or 70 Americans abandoned ship and took boats to the shore. Some swam and drowned, but most were collected by British boats. Approximately 40 escaped to the land. At 6:20 Porter struck his colors. The chaos ofEssex's rigging and the numerous banners, flags, and ensigns that Porter hoisted caused the British to take ten minutes to realize thatEssex had struck. A boat was sent to secure the prize.^[29]

Porter had been traumatized by the casualties, humiliated by defeat and overwrought by his exertions. Due to the shell shock, he openly wept as he offered his sword to Hillyar. By the next morning, Porter had regained his composure and began debating the specifics of the battle as not to becourt-martialled for the loss ofEssex.^[30]

Throughout the whole battleEssex Junior was not engaged by the British as they considered her too weak to be a threat.^[31]

Phoebe suffered four killed and seven wounded,Cherub had one killed and three wounded.Essex had 58 dead and 65 wounded.^[32]Phoebe had holes below thewaterline as well as her rigging severely cut.Essex had been hit with more than 200 shot and had her stern smashed in, a hole in her counter, her wheel and rudder damaged, all three masts damaged, the figurehead shot away, 15 guns disabled, 55 gun crew killed, 60 gun crew wounded, and the upper works and rigging severely damaged.^[28]

In his final report, David Porter claimed that the British had violated neutrality, conducted themselves dishonorably and inhumanely, and plundered his personal property after the engagement. He stated that the loss ofEssex was simply due to a series of misfortunes and blamedPaul Hamilton for his all short range carronade armament. He wrote to Secretary Jones "I hope, Sir, that our conduct may prove satisfactory to our country." Porter finally claimed that the United States had the right to reclaimEssex from the British.^[31]

The only viable parts of Porter's report was thatEssex was only armed with short-range carronades and that he had lost his top-mast. The British had not violated neutrality, conducted themselves dishonorably, nor plundered his personal belongings. There were no further misfortunes aboardEssex. The entire engagement could have been averted save Porter's desire to achieve personal glory by defeating the British rather than following his orders not to engage. Porter could have very well not returned to Valparaíso where he would be blockaded, as he knewPhoebe andCherub would arrive. The United States by no means had any right to reclaimEssex given the circumstances of the battle.^[33]

In contrast, Hillyar praised Porter for good conduct and claimed he only surrendered when all his options were expended. Hillyar found Essex with provisions for a six-month cruise. He moved all the ships to Valparaíso and transferred the prisoners to a Spanishprison hulk. On 2 April 1814, Hillyar repaired shot holes belowPhoebe's waterline. On 13 AprilTagus andNereus arrived. On 26 April the prisoners were moved toEssex Junior and ferried away. Hillyar would help reconcile the Peruvian and Chilean governments, which the British gave more attention to as theWar of the Sixth Coalition had ended andNapoleon was exiled. On 21 MayBriton arrived at Valparaíso. Finally on 31 May,Phoebe sailed home to Britain.^[34]

By 20 June, Dixon received news of Hillyar's victory which passed over the Andes. Dixon confirmed theTreaty of Lircay.Briton,Tagus, andCherub were ordered to remain in the South Pacific to watch the whaling fleet. News of the success reached London in August.^[35]

Essex served in the Royal Navy as HMSEssex until 1837.Essex Junior encounteredHMS Saturn on her return to the United States while carrying the prisoners. WhileSaturn inspectedEssex Junior, Porter escaped from the ship by boat. Americancoastal batteries were suspicious of the ship and opened fire. The United States believed Porter's explanation. Secretary Jones claimed that they had returned "in triumph though captives". He then decided thatSaturn had violated the terms of Porter's parole and that Porter and his crew should be free to serve. AdmiralAlexander Cochrane was furious, he intended on keeping Porter, a dangerous captain, as a prisoner. Because the case was never closed, Porter would be able to publish his version of his voyage to gain public support for his case. Porter was awarded the command of the new 44-gun frigate USSColumbia which would later be burnt by the British before she was completed. The war would end before Porter would get a chance to go to sea again.^[35]

Porter declared himself a hero, repeating his claims of the battle. He claimed that he inflicted $2.5 million in damage and cost the British $6 million to counter his cruise, having to redeploy ships that could counter the United States. In fact, the returns were negligible as only one prize returned to the United States and by 1814, the British had over 100 frigates available as they were no longer fighting Napoleon. Hence the four that sailed to Valparaíso was of insignificant force. Nevertheless, Porter's cruise proved to be the most successful of any American frigate captain of the war.^[35]

Herman Melville criticized Porter's refusal to strike his colors when it became clear that the situation was hopeless, instead of seeking to "crown himself with the glory of the shambles, by permitting his hopeless crew to be butchered before his eyes." "Nor, by thus continuing to fight, did this American frigate, one iota, promote the true interests of her country."^[36]

There is a memorial to the American dead in theDissidents Cemetery in Valparaíso.

• Lambert, Andrew (2012).The Challenge: Britain Against America in the Naval War of 1812 (Kindle ed.). Faber and Faber.ASIN B007JVF8UU

• Naval battles of the War of 1812
• Military history of Chile
• Conflicts in 1814
• 1814 in the Captaincy General of Chile
• Naval battles involving the United States
• Naval battles involving the United Kingdom
• March 1814

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