Batik is adyeing technique usingwaxresist. The term is also used to describe patterned textiles created with that technique. Batik is made by drawing or stamping wax on a cloth to prevent colour absorption during the dyeing process. This creates a patterned negative when the wax is removed from the dyed cloth. Artisans may create intricate coloured patterns with multiple cycles of wax application and dyeing. Patterns and motifs vary widely even within countries. Some patterns hold symbolic significance and are used only in certain occasions, while others were created to satisfy market demand and fashion trends.
Resist dyeing using wax has been practised since ancient times, and it is attested in several world cultures, such as Egypt, southern China (especially among hilltribes like theMiao,Bouyei, andGejia peoples), India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, and Sri Lanka. The technique developedin Indonesia (especially inJava) is among the most sophisticated, although its antiquity is difficult to determine. It first became widely known outside of Southeast Asia when it was described in the 1817History of Java, leading to significant collecting efforts and scholarly studies of the tradition and crafts. Javanese batik was subject to several innovations in the 19th to early-20th centuries, such as the use of stamp printing of wax to increase productivity. Many workshops and artisans are active today, creating a wide range of products and influencing other textile traditions and artists.
The English wordbatik is borrowed fromJavanesebathik (Javanese script:ꦧꦛꦶꦏ꧀,Pegon:باتيق).[a][1][2] English dictionaries tend to define batik as a general dyeing technique,[3][4] meaning that cloths with similar methods of production but culturally unrelated to Javanese batik may be labelled asbatik in English.[b]Robert Blust traces the Javanese word as a reflex ofProto-Austronesian*batik and its doublet*beCik which means decorations and patterns in general.[5][6][c] In Java, the word is only attested in sources post dating the Hindu–Buddhist period, from the 16th century onward.[7][8][d] Outside of Java, the word first appears in a 1641 merchant ship'sbill of lading asbatick.[10] The term and technique came to wider public notice beyond Southeast Asia followingThomas Stamford Raffles's description of batik process in his 1817 bookThe History of Java.[11] Colonial era Dutch sources record the word in various spellings, such asmbatik,mbatek,batik, andbatek.[12][13]
Ancient pieces and representation of Resist dyeing using wax
Fragment of dyed textile fromNiya (Tarim Basin), China, 3rd to early 4th century
Fragment of hanging with Biblical scenes, from Byzantine period Egypt, early 6th century
Ceremonial banner from India, possibly 14th century
Batik-like resist dyeing is an ancient art form. It existed inEgypt in the 4th century BC, where it was used to wrap mummies; linen was soaked in wax, and scratched using a stylus. It continued to be used to the medievalByzantine era, although surviving pieces are rare.[14] In Asia, the technique is attested in India, theTang dynasty in China, and theNara Period in Japan. In Africa it was practiced by theYoruba people of Nigeria, as well as by theSoninke andWolof of Senegal.[15]
The art of batik is highly developed on the island ofJava, Indonesia, although the antiquity of the technique is difficult to determine since batik pieces rarely survive long in the region's tropical climate. The Dutch historians G. G. Rouffaer & H. H. Juynboll argue that the technique might have been introduced during the 6th or 7th century from India or Sri Lanka.[15][16] The similarities between some traditional batik patterns with clothing details in ancient Hindu-Buddhist statuaries, for exampleEast Javanese Prajnaparamita, has made some authors attribute batik's creation to Java's Hindu-Buddhist period (8th-16th century AD).[17] Some scholars cautioned that mere similarity of pattern is not conclusive of batik, as it could be made by other non-related techniques.[18] Since the word "batik" is not attested in any pre-Islamic sources, some scholars have taken the view that batik only developed at the end of Java's Hindu-Buddhist period, from the 16th century onward following the demise ofMajapahit kingdom.[7][8] However, this view has not taken into account the oldest surviving physical Javanese batik piece, which was only identified in 2022. It is a blue-whitevalancecarbon dated to the 13th or 14th century, which correspond to early Majapahit period. The batik's quality and dating suggest that sophisticated batik techniques already existed at the time, but competed with the more establishedikat textiles.[19]
Batik craft further flourished in the Islamic courts of Java in the following centuries. The development of prominent batik types was partly motivated by the desire to replicate prestigious foreign textiles (such as Indianpatola) brought in by the Indian Ocean maritime trade.[20] When theDutch East Indies Company began to impose their monopolistic trade practice in 17th century Indonesia, batik cloths was one of the product which stifled their textile sales. Dutch imports ofchintz from theCoromandel coast could not compete with locally made batik due to their robust production and high quality.[21]
Depiction of early 19th century Javanese citizen wearing batik sarong, fromThe History of Java
Sarong in thepesisir "coastal" style from northern Javanese coast, early 20th century
Contemporary inland batik from Solo, Indonesia, withsidha drajat pattern.
Waxprint fabrics inTogo, a modern African adaption of Javanese batik
Batik technique became more widely known (particularly by Europeans outside of southeast Asia) when the Javanese version was described inThe History of Java, starting the collecting and scholarly interest in batik traditions. In 1873 the Dutch merchant Elie Van Rijckevorsel gave the pieces he collected during a trip to Indonesia to the ethnographic museum inRotterdam. Examples were displayed at Paris'sExposition Universelle in 1900. Today theTropenmuseum houses the biggest collection of Indonesian batik in theNetherlands.[15]
In the 19th to early 20th century, Dutch Indo–Europeans and Chinese settlers were actively involved in the production and development of Javanese batik, particularlypesisir "coastal" style batik in the northern coast of Java. Scholars such as J.E. Jasper and Mas Pirngadie published books extensively documenting existing batik patterns.[22] These in turn were used by Dutch and Chinese artisans to develop new patterns which blended several cultural influences, and who also introduced innovations such ascap (copper block stamps) to mass-produce batiks and synthetic dyes which allow brighter colours. Several prominent batik ateliers appeared, such as Eliza van Zuylen (1863–1947) and Oey Soe Tjoen (1901–1975),[23] and their products catered to a wide audience in theMalay archipelago (encompassing modern Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore). Batik skirts and sarongs for example were widely worn by indigenous, Chinese, and European women of the region, paired with the ubiquitouskebaya shirt. Batik was also used for more specialized applications, such asperanakan altar cloth calledtok wi (桌帷).[24][25]
It is in this time period as well that the Javanese batik production spread overseas. InSubsaharan Africa, Javanese batik was introduced in the 19th century by Dutch and English merchants. It was subsequently modified by local artisans with larger motifs, thicker lines, and more colours into what is now known asAfrican wax prints. Modern West African versions also usecassava starch, rice paste, or mud as a resist.[26] In the 1920s, Javanese batik makers migrating to the eastern coast ofMalay Peninsula introduced batik production using stamp blocks.[27]
Many traditional ateliers in Java collapsed immediately following the Second World War andIndonesian wars of independence,[28] but many workshops and artisans are still active today creating a wide range of products. They still continue to influence a number of textile traditions and artists. In the 1970s for example, batik was introduced toAustralia, where aboriginal artists atErnabella have developed it as their own craft.[29] The works of the English artistThetis Blacker were influenced by Indonesian batik; she had worked in Yogyakarta's Batik Research Institute and had travelled in Bali.[30]
Production begins by washing the base cloth,[e] soaking it, and beating it with a large mallet. Patterns are sketched with pencil and redrawn using hot wax, usually made from a mixture ofparaffin orbeeswax, sometimes mixed with plant resins. The wax functions as a dye-resist which prevent colour absorption during the dyeing process. This creates a patterned negative when the wax is removed from the dyed cloth.[31][32] Using this mechanism, artisans may create intricate coloured patterns with multiple cycles of wax application and dyeing.
Principle ofresist dyeing used in batik: a wax negative is created, enabling an area of any desired shape to be coloured.
The wax can be applied with a variety of tools, including writing with a pen-likecanting tool, printing with acap, or painting with a brush.[31] The canting is the most basic and traditional tool, creating what is known as "written batik" (batik tulis). It allows the creation of very fine, minute patterns but the process is very labour-intensive. Stamped batik (batik cap) allows more efficient production for larger quantities at the expense of detail.[33][34]
Written batik orbatik tulis (Javanese script: ꦧꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦠꦸꦭꦶꦱ꧀;Pegon: باتيق توليس) is made by writing molten wax on the cloth with a pen-like instrument called acanting (Javanese pronunciation:[tʃantiŋ],old spellingtjanting). It is a small copper reservoir with a spout on a wooden handle. The reservoir holds the resist which flows through the spout, creating dots and lines as it moves. The cloth is then dipped in a dye-bath, and left to dry. The resist is removed by boiling or scraping the cloth. The areas treated with resist keep their original colour; when the resist is removed the contrast between the dyed and undyed areas forms the pattern. The process is repeated as many times as the number of colours desired.[35][36]
Written batik usingcanting
Acanting in use to draw a resist pattern in molten wax
Written batik, drawing patterns with wax usingcanting inJava
Stamped batik orbatik cap (Javanese script: ꦧꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦕꦥ꧀; Pegon: باتيق چڤ) is batik whose manufacturing process uses acap (Javanese pronunciation:[tʃap]; old spellingtjap) stamp with carved motifs to print an area of the cloth with the resist. The material of the stamp can vary. Medieval Indian stamps tend to use wood. Modern Javanese stamps are made of copper strips and wires, the manufacture of which is a highly skilled process. The rest of the dyeing process is the same as for written batik. The replacement of thecanting with thecap reduces the effort needed to make a batik cloth, and hence the cost, but still requires skill.[37][38]
Stamped batik usingcap
A handmade Javanesebatik cap for stamping patterns, made of copper strips and wires
Painted batik orbatik lukis (Javanese script: ꦧꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦭꦸꦏꦶꦱ꧀; Pegon: باتيق لوكيس) is a technique of making batik by painting (with or without a template) on a white cloth using a combination of tools such as thecanting, brush, cotton, or sticks to apply the resist, according to the painter. Brush application is especially useful to cover large areas of a cloth. Batik painting is a development of traditional batik art, producing contemporary (free) motifs or patterns. It may use more colours that are traditional in written batik.[39]
Painted batik using brushes
A craftwoman inYogyakarta making aRangda wax motif using a brush.
Craftswoman brush painting with wax inKandy,Sri Lanka. Note the large cover area of the wax
The dyeing process is similar regardless of the wax application technique. Waxed cloths are dipped in vats of dye according to the desired colour. Wax is then scraped off or removed by boiling water, leaving a patterned negative on the cloth. The wax application and dyeing are repeated as necessary. Before the invention of synthetic dyes, dyeing is one of the more technically complicated production stages, for several reasons. Natural dyes, mostly vegetal, do not always produce consistent colours between batches. Dyers must take into account how different dye shades interact when cloths go through multiple stages of dyeing with different colours. Many dyers use proprietary dye recipes for this reason, using locally sourced plant materials. Natural dyes also take longer to produce deep shades of colour, extending the dyeing process.[40] Synthetic dyes greatly simplify the process, but produce chemical waste that may be harmful for the environment. Eco-friendliness is one reason some batik producers opt to use natural dyes, despite the availability of synthetic alternatives.[41][42][31]
The patterns of batik textiles are particular to the time, place, and culture of their producers. In textile scholarship, most studies have focused onIndonesian batik patterns, as these drew from a wide range of cultural influences and are often symbolically rich. Some patterns are said to have loaded meanings and deep philosophies, with their use reserved for special occasions or groups of peoples (e.g. nobles, royalties).[43] However, some scholars have cautioned that existing literature on Indonesian textiles over-romanticises and exoticises the purported meanings behind relatively mundane patterns.[44] Some batik patterns (even if they are technically demanding and intricate) were created to satisfy market demand and fashion trends.[20][45]
Cultural influences on Indonesian batik patterns[46]
African wax prints were introduced during the colonial era, through the Dutch textile industry's effort to imitate the batik-making process. The imitation was not successful in Indonesian market, but was welcomed in West and Central Africa.[47][48][49]Nelson Mandela was a noted wearer ofbatik during his lifetime. Mandela regularly wore patterned loose-fitting shirt to many business and political meetings during 1994–1999 and after his tenure asPresident of South Africa, subsequently dubbed as aMadiba shirt based on Mandela'sXhosa clan name.[50] There are many who claim the Madiba shirt's invention. According to Yusuf Surtee, a clothing-store owner who supplied Mandela with outfits for decades, the Madiba design is based on Mandela's request for a shirt similar toIndonesian presidentSuharto'sbatik attire.[51]
Batik is made by ethnic peoples in the South-West ofChina, and in neighbouring countries including Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, especially by hill tribes. The technique requires aladao knife with two copper triangles mounted in a bamboo handle. Molten wax is held between the triangles, and can then be dripped from the knife to form a resist pattern on the cloth. Someladao knives have more than two triangles, holding more wax and creating thicker lines.[52] TheMiao,Bouyei andGejia people use a dye resist method for some of their traditional costumes. Almost all the Miao decorate hemp and cotton by applying hot wax, and then dipping the cloth in an indigo dye. The cloth is then used for skirts, panels on jackets, aprons and baby carriers. Like the Javanese, their traditional patterns contain symbolism; the patterns include thedragon,phoenix, and flowers.[53][54][55]
Indians use resist-dyeing with cotton fabrics. Initially, wax and even rice starch were used for printing on fabrics. Until recentlybatik was made only for dresses and tailored garments, but modernbatik is applied in numerous items, such as murals, wall hangings, paintings, household linen, and scarves, with livelier and brighter patterns. Contemporarybatik making inIndia is done by the deaf women ofDelhi, who are fluent inIndian Sign Language and work in other vocational programs.[56]
Dancers ofBedhaya, a royal dance from the palace ofSurakarta, wearing costume with prescribed batik patterns
Batiksarongs with a variety of patterns worn freely according to individual taste
Batik plays multiple roles in theculture of Indonesia, especially inJavanese culture. The wax resist-dyeing technique has been used for centuries inJava, where certain motifs had symbolic meaning and prescribed use, indicating a person's level in society.[57] It is an essential component in the attires of Javanese royal palaces,[58][59] worn by monarchs, nobilities,abdi (palace staff), guards, anddancers.[60][61] On the other hand, there are non-ceremonial batik which has long been treated as a trade commodity, with usage that are determined by taste, fashion, and affordability. Today in Indonesia, batik pattern is commonly seen on shirts, dresses, and other everyday attire.[46][42][45][20]
On 2 October 2009,UNESCO recognized written batik (batik tulis) and stamped batik (batik cap) as aMasterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity from Indonesia.[33] Since then, Indonesia has celebrated aBatik Day (Hari Batik Nasional) annually on 2 October. In the same year, UNESCO recognized education and training in Indonesian Batik as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.[62]
Craftsman in Malaysia creating a typical floral motif with light colouring
Trade relations between theMalay kingdoms in Sumatra and Malay peninsula with Javanese coastal cities have thrived since the 13th century. The northern coastal batik-producing areas ofJava (Cirebon, Lasem, Tuban, and Madura) have influencedJambi batik,[63] which, along with Javanese batik, subsequently influenced the craft in theMalay Peninsula.[64] Later, in the 1920s, a new influx of Javanese batik makers introduced stamped batik to the peninsula.[27] The batik industry today provides significant benefit to the Malaysian economy, and the Malaysian government supports efforts to promote their own artisans and their products abroad.[65]
Fiona Kerlogue, of theHorniman museum, noted several differences between Malaysian batik and traditional Indonesian batik. Malaysian batik patterns tend to be larger and simpler, making only occasional use of thecanting for intricate patterns. They rely heavily onbrush painting to apply colours to fabrics. The colours are usually lighter and more vibrant than the deep-coloured Javanese batik popular in Indonesia. The most popular motifs are leaves and flowers; Malaysian batik often displays plants and flowers to avoid the interpretation of human and animal images as idolatry, in accordance with local Islamic doctrine.[66] Despite these differences, confusion between Malaysian and Indonesian batik has led to some disputes in theIndonesia-Malaysia bilateral relations.[67][f]
Over the past century,batik making inSri Lanka has become firmly established. Thebatik industry in Sri Lanka is a small scale industry which can employ individual design talent. It mainly deals with foreign customers for profit. In the 21st century, it has become the most visible of the island's crafts; galleries and factories, large and small, have sprung up in many tourist areas. For example, rows of small batik stalls can be found all alongHikkaduwa's Galle Road strip.Mahawewa, on the other hand, is famous for itsbatik factories.[69][70]
^It is also Javanese terms that are often used in English sources to discuss batik cloths and techniques
^Some sources claim that the term is a contraction of two Javanese wordsamba 'to write' andtitik 'dots' or some other variations, but invariably these claims do not have clear source and is more akin tofolk derivedbackronym.
^Only the termtulis warna, surmised to be similar with modernbatik tulis production technique, has been attested in pre-Islamic Javanese sources[9]
^Batik applies resist on weaved fabric, in contrast toikat which applies resist to the yarns prior to weaving.
^Cultural claims of batik (especially its purported "origins") is one of the disputes that has come up time to time. Malaysian made batik are prone to be accused as cultural appropriation by some Indonesian sources, while some Malaysian sources countered that these accusations only came up because Indonesian government were negligent in supporting their own batik industry and heritage.[68]
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Maxwell, Robyn (2003).Textiles of Southeast Asia: Tradition, Trade and Transformation. Singapore: Periplus.
Nava, Nadia (1991).Il batik: come tingere e decorare i tessuti diegnando con la cera. Ulisse.ISBN88-414-1016-7.
Pullen, Lesley (2021).Patterned Splendour: Textiles Presented on Javanese Metal and Stone Sculptures, Eighth to Fifteenth Century. Singapore: ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute.
Shen, Yuexiu; Wong, Mei Sheong (2023). "Qilin, Rabbit and Pencils: Batik Tokwi from Northcoast Java". In James Bennett; Russel Kelty (eds.).Interwoven Journeys: the Michael Abbott Collections of Asian Art. Adelaide: Art Gallery of South Australia (AGSA).
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iWareBatik |Indonesian Batik Textile Heritage A website devoted to Batik, Indonesian Textile enlisted by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage. It links Batik production with Tourism and Fashion in Indonesia
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