Basil I, nicknamed "the Macedonian" (Greek:Βασίλειος ὁ Μακεδών,romanized: Basíleios ō Makedṓn; 811 – 29 August 886), wasByzantine emperor from 867 to 886. Born to a peasant family inMacedonia, he rose to prominence in the imperial court after gaining the favour of EmperorMichael III, whosemistress he married on his emperor's orders. In 866, Michael proclaimed him co-emperor. Fearing a loss of influence, Basil orchestrated Michael's assassination the next year and installed himself as sole ruler of the empire. He was the first ruler of theMacedonian dynasty.
Despite his humble origins, Basil was an effective and respected monarch. He initiated a complete overhaul of Byzantine law, an effort continued by his successor that ultimately became theBasilika. On the foreign front, he achieved military success against the hereticalPaulicians, whom he subjugated in 872. He also pursued an active policy in the west, allying with Carolingian emperorLouis II against the Arabs, which led to a new period of Byzantine domination in Italy. Upon his death in a hunting accident in 886, he was succeeded by his sonLeo VI, also rumoured to have been the son of Michael III.
Basil was born to peasant parents in late 811 (or sometime in the 830s in the estimation of some scholars) atChariopolis in theByzantine theme ofMacedonia (an administrative division corresponding to the area ofAdrianople inThrace).[3][4] The theory that Basil may have been born in the 830's might better explain that the young Emperor Michael III later chose him as his favorite. His father was named Bardas/Constantine, his mother Pankalo, and his paternal grandfather Maiktes/Leo. His paternal grandmother's father was named Leo/Maiktes.[5] His ethnic origin is unknown and has been a subject of debate.
During Basil's reign, an elaborate genealogy was produced that purported that his ancestors were not mere peasants, as everyone believed, but descendants of theArsacid (Arshakuni) kings ofArmenia,Alexander the Great and also ofConstantine the Great. The Armenian historiansSamuel of Ani andStephen of Taron record that he hailed from the village of Thil inTaron.[5] In contrast, Persian writers such asHamza al-Isfahani,[6] oral-Tabari, call both Basil and his motherSaqlabi, an ethnogeographic term that usually denoted theSlavs, but can also be interpreted as a generic term encompassing the inhabitants of the region betweenConstantinople andBulgaria.[7] Claims have therefore been made for an Armenian,[8] Slavic,[6][9] or indeed "Armeno-Slavonic"[4] origin for Basil's father. The name of his mother points to a Greek origin on the maternal side.[5][10] The general scholarly consensus is that Basil's father was "probably" of Armenian origin, and settled in Byzantine Thrace.[5] His close associates and friends were mostly Armenians and, besidesGreek, he might have spokenArmenian as well.[11] Norman Tobias, the author of the only dedicatedbiography of Basil I inEnglish, concluded that it is impossible to be certain what the ethnic origins of the emperor were, though Basil was definitely reliant on the support of Armenians in prominent positions within the Byzantine Empire.[12]
Basil victorious in a wrestling match against a Bulgarian champion (far left), from theMadrid Skylitzes manuscript.
One story asserts that he had spent a part of his childhood in captivity inBulgaria, where his family had, allegedly, been carried off as captives of the KhanKrum (r. 803–814) in 813. Basil lived there until 836, when he and several others escaped to Byzantine-held territory inThrace.[3] Basil was ultimately lucky enough to enter the service of Theophilitzes, a relative of theCaesarBardas (the uncle of EmperorMichael III), as a groom. While serving Theophilitzes, he visited the city ofPatras, where he gained the favour ofDanielis, a wealthy woman who took him into her household and endowed him with a fortune.[13] He also earned the notice of Michael III by his abilities as a horse tamer and in winning a victory over a Bulgarian champion in awrestling match; he soon became the Byzantine Emperor's companion, confidant, and bodyguard (parakoimomenos).[14] Symeon Magister describes Basil as "... most outstanding in bodily form and heavy set; his eyebrows grew together, he had large eyes and a broad chest, and a rather downcast expression".[15]
The coronation of Basil I as co-emperor, from theMadrid Skylitzes manuscript
On Emperor Michael's orders, Basil divorced his wife Maria and marriedEudokia Ingerina, Michael's favourite mistress, in around 865.[13] Around the same time, Michael III offered him his sisterThekla as a mistress. Basil had an affair with her until 870, when he discovered that she was being unfaithful to him and, for this reason, he sent her back to the convent she had been immured in previously.[16][17] During an expedition against theArabs, Basil convinced Michael III that his uncle Bardas coveted the Byzantine throne, and subsequently murdered Bardas with Michael's approval on 21 April 866.[18] Basil then became the leading personality at court and was invested in the now vacant dignity ofkaisar (Caesar), before beingcrowned co-emperor on 26 May 866.[18] This promotion may have included Basil's adoption by Michael III, himself a much younger man. It was commonly believed thatLeo VI, Basil's successor and reputed son, was really the son of Michael.[13] Although Basil seems to have shared this belief (and hated Leo), the subsequent promotion of Basil to caesar and then co-emperor provided the child with a legitimate and Imperial parent and secured his succession to the Byzantine throne. When Leo was born, Michael III celebrated the event with publicchariot races, whilst he pointedly instructed Basil not to presume on his new position as junior emperor.[19]
The murder of Michael III and the proclamation of Basil I as the new emperor
When Michael III started to favour another courtier,Basiliskianos, Basil felt that his position was being undermined. Michael threatened to invest Basiliskianos with the Imperial title and this induced Basil to pre-empt events by organizing the assassination of Michael on the night of 24 September 867.[20][note 1] Michael and Basiliskianos were insensibly drunk following a banquet at the palace of Anthimos when Basil, with a small group of companions (including his father Bardas, brother Marinos, and cousin Ayleon),[note 2] gained entry. The locks to the chamber doors had been tampered with and the chamberlain had not posted guards; both victims were then put to thesword.[note 3] On Michael III's death, Basil, as an already acclaimed co-emperor, automatically became the rulingbasileus.[27]
Basil I became an effective and respected monarch despite being a man with no formal education and little military or administrative experience. Moreover, he had been the boon companion of a debauched monarch and had achieved power through a series of calculated murders. That there was little political reaction to the murder of Michael III is probably due to his unpopularity with the bureaucrats ofConstantinople because of his disinterest in the administrative duties of the Imperial office. Also, Michael's public displays ofimpiety had alienated the Byzantine populace in general. Once in power Basil soon showed that he intended to rule effectively and as early as his coronation he displayed an overt religiosity by formally dedicating his crown toChrist. He maintained a reputation for conventional piety and orthodoxy throughout his 19-year-long reign.[28]
Because of the great legislative work which Basil I undertook, he is often called the "secondJustinian". Basil's laws were collected in theBasilika, consisting of sixty books, and smaller legal manuals known as theEisagoge. Leo VI was responsible for completing these legal works. TheBasilika remained the law of the Byzantine Empire down to its conquest by theOttomans. Ironically, this codification of laws seems to have begun under the direction of thecaesar Bardas who was murdered by Basil.[29] Basil personally oversaw the construction of theNea Ekklesia cathedral[30][31] and his palatine hall theKainourgion.[32] His ecclesiastical policy was marked by good relations withRome. One of his first acts was to exile thePatriarch of Constantinople,Photios, and restore his rivalIgnatios, whose claims were supported byPope Adrian II.[3]
The Sicilian stronghold of Syracusefalls to the Arabs in 878.
Emperor Basil's reign was marked by the troublesome ongoing war with the hereticalPaulicians, centered onTephrike on the upperEuphrates, who rebelled, allied with the Arabs, and raided as far asNicaea, sackingEphesus. Basil's general,Christopher,defeated the Paulicians in 872, and the death of their leader,Chrysocheir, led to the definite subjection of their state.[33] Basil was the first Byzantine emperor sinceConstans II (r. 641–668) to pursue an active policy to restore the Empire's power in the West. Basil allied withHoly Roman Emperor Louis II (r. 850–875) against the Arabs and sent a fleet of 139 ships to clear theAdriatic Sea of their raids. With Byzantine help, Louis IIcaptured Bari from the Arabs in 871. The city eventually became Byzantine territory in 876. However, the Byzantine position inSicily deteriorated, andSyracuse fell to theEmirate of Sicily in 878. This was ultimately Basil's fault as he had diverted a relief fleet from Sicily to haulmarble for a church instead. Although most of Sicily was lost, the generalNikephoros Phokas (the Elder) succeeded in takingTaranto and much ofCalabria in 880. The successes in theItalian peninsula opened a new period of Byzantine domination there. Above all, the Byzantines were beginning to establish a strong presence in theMediterranean Sea, and especially theAdriatic.[34]
The army under Nikephoros Phokas the Elder captures the city of Amantia in Italy.
Santabarenos the Monk advises Prince Leo to carry a knife.Basil I and his son Leo. Leo is discovered carrying a knife in the emperor's presence.
Basil's spirits declined in 879, when his eldest and favourite son, Constantine, died. Basil now raised his youngest son,Alexander, to the rank of co-emperor. Basil disliked the bookishLeo, on occasion physically beating him; he probably suspected Leo of being the son of Michael III. In his later years, Basil's relationship with Leo was clouded by the suspicion that the latter might wish to avenge the murder of Michael III. Leo was eventually imprisoned by Basil after Theodore Santabarenos informed him of a plot against him, but the imprisonment resulted in public rioting; Basil threatened to blind Leo but was dissuaded by Patriarch Photios. Leo was eventually released after the passage of three years.[35] Basil died on 29 August 886,[36] from afever contracted after a serious hunting accident when hisbelt was caught in the antlers of adeer, and he was allegedly dragged 25 kilometres (16 mi) through the woods. He was saved by an attendant who cut him loose with aknife, but he suspected the attendant of trying to assassinate him and had the man executed shortly before he himself died.[37] One of the first acts of Leo VI as ruling emperor was to rebury, with great ceremony, the remains of Michael III in the ImperialMausoleum within theChurch of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. This did much to confirm in public opinion the view that Leo considered himself to have been Michael's son.[38]
Some modern controversy and historical ambiguity surrounds Basil I's personal life, especially given a lack of contemporaneous sources. One question that has emerged in modern scholarship is whether or not Basil was involved in same-sex relationships and if such relationships played a role in his unlikely rise to power. Historian Shaun Fitzroy Tougher cites a history written by George the Monk[39] that uses the Greek wordpothos to describe Basil's relationship with Michael, a word which had historically been used in some Greek Christian sources to describe the desire between a wife and a husband.[40] However, within the law code, theBasilika, inaugurated by Basil I, the illegal nature of malehomosexuality and its, largely theoretical, capital punishment were retained in full.[41][42]
Aspects of the family relationships of Basil I are likewise uncertain and open to a variety of interpretations.Therefore, the information given below should not be treated as comprehensive or definite:[43]
By his first wife Maria, Basil I had several children, including:
Harry Turtledove, a historian noted for his speculative fiction based on alternative history, has written several series set in a place calledVidessos, which is a thinly disguised Byzantine Empire. TheTale of Krispos trilogy –Krispos Rising (1991),Krispos of Videssos (1991), andKrispos the Emperor (1994) – are fictionalized retellings of the rise of Basil.[45]
Stephen Lawhead's book,Byzantium (1996), uses the succession of Basil I as seed for the conspiracy which occupies most of the novel.[46]
Robert Greene's bookThe 48 Laws of Power (1998), features Basil I's rise to power, by way of his interactions and later his manipulations of Michael III, as an example of a "transgression of the law" for Law #2, "Never put too much trust in friends, learn how to use enemies".[47]
^Some modern authorities give 23 September,[21] but this is a mistake. The origin of the confusion can be traced toJ. B. Bury'sHistory of the Eastern Roman Empire (1912). Bury, citing theTheophanes Continuatus, first gives Michael's death as 24 September,[22] but then inexplicably changes it to 23 September later in the book.[23]
^The name of the father of Basil is unrecorded; however, Byzantine naming conventions are sometimes used to predict that of a relative. The names of Basil's male siblings and other relatives are recorded from later in his reign.[24][25]
^A man named John of Chaldia killed Michael III, cutting off both the Emperor's hands before returning to stab him in the heart.[26]
^Kargakos, Sarantos I. (1999).Historia tou Hellēnikou kosmou kai tou meizonos chōrou : Eurōpē, Asia, Aphrikē, Amerikē (1. ekd ed.). Athēna: Gutenberg. pp. 580–581.ISBN960-01-0822-6.OCLC44045861.
^Morris, S. (2011) "The Gay Male as Byzantine Monster: Civil Legislation and Punishment for Same-Sex Behaviour" in,The Horrid Looking Glass: Reflections on Monstrosity, Yoder, P.L. and Kreuter, P.M. (eds.), Brill, Leiden, ISBN 9781904710158, p. 125
^Dynes, W.R., ed. (2016).Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. Vol. I. Abingdon: Taylor & Francis. p. 182.ISBN9781317368151.
Recent years have seen the first translations into English of a number of primary sources about Basil I and his times.
Featherstone, Jeffrey Michael and Signes-Codoñer, Juan (translators).Chronographiae quae Theophanis Continuati nomine fertur Libri I-IV (Chronicle ofTheophanes Continuatus Books I-IV, comprising the reigns ofLeo V the Armenian toMichael III), Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2015.
Kaldellis, A. (trans.).On the reigns of the emperors (the history ofJoseph Genesios), Canberra: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies; Byzantina Australiensia 11, 1998.
Ševčenko, Ihor (trans.).Chronographiae quae Theophanis Continuati nomine fertur Liber quo Vita Basilii Imperatoris amplectitur (Chronicle ofTheophanes Continuatus comprising the Life of Basil I), Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011.
Wahlgren, Staffan (translator, writer of introduction and commentary).The Chronicle of the Logothete, Liverpool University Press; Translated Texts for Byzantinists, vol. 7, 2019.
Wortley, John (trans.).A synopsis of Byzantine history, 811-1057 (the history ofJohn Scylitzes, active 1081), Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Vogt, Albert; Hausherr, Isidorous, eds. (1932). "Oraison funèbre de Basile I par son fils Léon VI le Sage".Orientalia Christiana Periodica (in French).26 (77). Rome, Italy: Pontificium Institutum Orientalium Studiorum:39–78.
Mango, Cyril (1973). "Eudocia Ingerina, the Normans, and the Macedonian Dynasty".Zbornik Radova Vizantološkog Instituta.14–15:17–27.doi:10.30965/9783657760374_019.S2CID240457579.
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