| Baroque architecture | |
|---|---|
   .jpg) Clockwise from top left:Church of Saint Ignatius of Loyola in Italy,Church of Santa Prisca de Taxco in Mexico,Smolny Cathedral in Russia,St-Gervais-et-St-Protais in France | |
| Years active | Late 16th–18th centuries |
| Location | Europe and Latin America |
Baroque architecture is a highly decorative and theatrical style which appeared in Italy in the late 16th century and gradually spread across Europe. It was originally introduced by theCatholic Church, particularly theJesuits, as a means to combat theReformation and theProtestant church with a new architecture that inspired astonishment, reverence and awe.[1] It reached its peak in the High Baroque (1625–1675), when it was used in churches and palaces in Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Bavaria and Austria. In the Late Baroque period (1675–1750), it reached as far as Russia, theOttoman Empire and theSpanish andPortuguese colonies in Latin America. In about 1730, an even more elaborately decorative variant calledRococo appeared and flourished in Central Europe.[2][3]
Baroque architects took the basic elements ofRenaissance architecture, includingdomes andcolonnades, and made them higher, grander, more decorated, and more dramatic. The interior effects were often achieved with the use ofquadratura (i.e.trompe-l'œil painting combined with sculpture): the eye is drawn upward, giving the illusion that one is looking into the heavens. Clusters of sculpted angels and painted figures crowd the ceiling. Light was also used for dramatic effect; it streamed down fromcupolas, and was reflected from an abundance ofgilding.Twisted columns were also often used, to give an illusion of upwards motion, andcartouches and other decorative elements occupied every available space. In Baroque palaces, grand stairways became a central element.[4]
TheEarly Baroque (1584–1625) was largely dominated by the work of Roman architects, notably theChurch of the Gesù byGiacomo della Porta (consecrated 1584) façade and colonnade ofSt. Peter's Basilica byCarlo Maderno (completed 1612) and the lavishBarberini Palace interiors byPietro da Cortona (1633–1639), andSanta Susanna (1603), by Carlo Maderno. In France, theLuxembourg Palace (1615–45) built bySalomon de Brosse forMarie de' Medici was an early example of the style.[5]
TheHigh Baroque (1625–1675) produced major works in Rome by Pietro da Cortona, including the (Church ofSanti Luca e Martina) (1635–50); byFrancesco Borromini (San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1634–1646)); and byGian Lorenzo Bernini (The colonnade ofSt. Peter's Square) (1656–57). InVenice, High Baroque works includedSanta Maria della Salute byBaldassare Longhena. Examples in France included thePavillon de l’Horloge of theLouvre Palace byJacques Lemercier (1624–1645), the Chapel of theSorbonne by Jacques Lemercier (1626–35) and theChâteau de Maisons byFrançois Mansart (1630–1651).
TheLate Baroque (1675–1750) saw the style spread to all parts of Europe, and to the colonies of Spain and Portugal in the New World. National styles became more varied and distinct. The Late Baroque in France, underLouis XIV, was more ordered and classical; examples included theHall of Mirrors of thePalace of Versailles and the dome ofLes Invalides. An especially ornate variant, appeared in the early 18th century; it was first calledRocaille in France; then Rococo in Spain and Central Europe. The sculpted and painted decoration covered every space on the walls and ceiling. Its most celebrated architect wasBalthasar Neumann, noted for theBasilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers and theWürzburg Residence (1749–51).[6]
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Baroque architecture first appeared in the late 16th and early 17th century in religious architecture in Rome as a means to counter the popular appeal of theProtestant Reformation. Reacting against the more severe and academic earlier style of earlier churches, it aimed to inspire collective awe and reverence in the congregation. To achieve this, it orchestrated contrast, movement,trompe-l'œil and other dramatic and theatrical effects, most notablyquadratura—the use of painted ceilings that gave the illusion that one was looking up directly into heaven. The new style was particularly favored by the new religious orders, including theTheatines and theJesuits, who built new churches designed to attract and inspire a wide popular audience.[7]
One of the first Baroque architects,Carlo Maderno, used Baroque effects of space and perspective in the new façade and colonnade ofSaint Peter's Basilica, which was designed to contrast with and complement the gigantic dome built earlier byMichelangelo.[8] Other influential early examples in Rome included theChurch of the Gesù byGiacomo della Porta (consecrated 1584), with the first Baroque façade and a highly ornate interior, andSanta Susanna (1603), by Carlo Maderno.[9]
The Jesuits soon imported the style to Paris. The Church ofSt-Gervais-et-St-Protais in Paris (1615–1621) had the first Baroque façade in France, featuring, like the Italian Baroque façades, the three superimposed classical orders.[10] The Italian style of palaces was also imported to Paris byMarie de' Medici for her new residence, theLuxembourg Palace (1615–1624) by architectSalomon de Brosse, and for a new wing of theChâteau of Blois byFrançois Mansard (1635–38).Nicolas Fouquet, thesuperintendent of finances for the young KingLouis XIV, chose the new style for his château atVaux-le-Vicomte (1612–1670) byLouis Le Vau. He was later imprisoned by the King because of the extravagant cost of the palace.[11]
In theSouthern Netherlands, the Baroque architecture was introduced by the Catholic Church in the context of theCounter-Reformation and theEighty Years' War. After the separation of the Netherlands Baroque churches were set up across the country. One of the first architects wasWenceslas Cobergher (1560-1634), who built theBasilica of Our Lady of Scherpenheuvel from 1609 until 1627 and theChurch of Saint Augustine, Antwerp. Other churches are for example theSt. Charles Borromeo Church, Antwerp (1615-1621) and theSt. Walburga Church (Bruges) (1619-1641), both built byPieter Huyssens. Later, secular buildings, such as theGuildhalls on theGrand-Place inBrussels and severalBelfries, were constructed too.[citation needed]
The first example of early Baroque in Central Europe was theCorpus Christi Church, Nesvizh in thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, built by the Jesuits on the Roman model between 1586 and 1593 inNieśwież (after 1945 Niasvizh in Belarus).[12][13] The church also holds a distinction of being the first domed basilica with a Baroque façade in the Commonwealth and Eastern Europe.[13]Another early example in Poland is the Church ofSaints Peter and Paul Church, Kraków, built between 1597 and 1619 by the Italian Jesuit architectGiovanni Maria Bernardoni.[14]
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Pope Urban VIII, who occupied the Papacy from 1623 to 1644, became the most influential patron of the Baroque style. After the death ofCarlo Maderno in 1629, Urban named the architect and sculptorGian Lorenzo Bernini as the chief Papal architect. Bernini created not only Baroque buildings, but also Baroque interiors, squares and fountains, transforming the center of Rome into an enormous theater. Bernini rebuilt the Church ofSanta Bibiana and the Church ofSan Sebastiano al Palatino on thePalatine Hill into Baroque landmarks, planned theFontana del Tritone in thePiazza Barberini, and created the soaringbaldacchino as the centerpiece ofSt Peter's Basilica.[15]
The High Baroque spread gradually across Italy, beyond Rome. The period saw the construction ofSanta Maria della Salute byBaldassare Longhena in Venice (1630–31). Churches were not the only buildings to use the Baroque style. One of the finest monuments of the early Baroque is theBarberini Palace (1626–1629), the residence of the family of Urban VIII, begun by Carlo Maderno, and completed and decorated by Bernini andFrancesco Borromini. The outside of the Pope's family residence, was relatively restrained, but the interiors, and especially the immense fresco on the ceiling of the salon, theAllegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power painted byPietro da Cortona, are considered masterpieces of Baroque art and decoration.[16] Curving façades and the illusion of movement were a speciality of Francesco Borromini, most notably inSan Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1634–1646), one of the landmarks of the high Baroque.[17] Another important monument of the period was the Church ofSanti Luca e Martina in Rome by Pietro da Cortona (1635–50), in the form of aGreek cross with an elegant dome. After the death of Urban VIII and the brief reign of his successor, the Papacy ofPope Alexander VII from 1666 until 1667 saw more construction of Baroque churches, squares and fountains in Rome byCarlo Rainaldi, Bernini andCarlo Fontana.[18]
KingLouis XIII had sent the architectJacques Lemercier to Rome between 1607 and 1614 to study the new style. On his return to France, he designed thePavillon de l’Horloge of theLouvre Palace (beginning 1626), and, more importantly, theSorbonne Chapel, the first church dome in Paris. It was designed in 1626, and construction began in 1635.[19] The next important French Baroque project was a much larger dome for thechurch of Val-de-Grâce begun in 1645 by Lemercier andFrançois Mansart, and finished in 1715. A third Baroque dome was soon added for theCollège des Quatre-Nations (now theInstitut de France).[20]
In 1661, following the death ofCardinal Mazarin, the youngLouis XIV took direct charge of the government. The arts were put under the direction of hisController-General of Finances,Jean-Baptiste Colbert.Charles Le Brun, director of theRoyal Academy of Painting and Sculpture, was named Superintendent of Buildings of the King, in charge of all royal architectural projects. TheAcadémie royale d'architecture was founded in 1671, with the mission of making Paris, not Rome, the artistic and architectural model for the world.[21]
The first architectural project of Louis XIV was a proposed reconstruction of the façade of the east wing of the Louvre Palace.Bernini, then Europe's most famous architect, was summoned to Paris to submit a design. Beginning in 1664, Bernini proposed several Baroque variants, but in the end the King selecteda design by a French architect,Claude Perrault, in a more classical variant of Baroque. This gradually became theLouis XIV style. Louis was soon engaged in an even larger project, the construction of the newPalace of Versailles. The architects chosen wereLouis Le Vau andJules Hardouin-Mansart, and the façades of the new palace were constructed around the earlier Marble Court between 1668 and 1678. The Baroque grandeur of Versailles, particularly the façade facing the garden and theHall of Mirrors by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, became models for other palaces across Europe.[22]
During the period of the Late Baroque (1675–1750), the style appeared across Europe, from England and France to Central Europe and Russia, from Spain and Portugal to Scandinavia, and in the colonies of Spain and Portugal in the New World and the Philippines. It often took different names, and the regional variations became more distinct. A particularly ornate variant appeared in the early 18th century, calledRocaille in France andRococo in Spain and Central Europe. The sculpted and painted decoration covering every space on the walls and ceiling. The most prominent architects of this style includedBalthasar Neumann, noted for theBasilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers and theWurzburg Residence (1749–51). These works were among the final expressions of the Rococo or the Late Baroque.[6]
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By the early 18th century, Baroque buildings could be found in all parts of Italy, often with regional variations. Notable examples included theBasilica of Superga, overlookingTurin, byFilippo Juvarra (1717–1731), which was later used as model for thePanthéon in Paris.[23] TheStupinigi Palace (1729–31) was a hunting lodge and one of theResidences of the Royal House of Savoy near Turin. It was also built byFilippo Juvarra.[24]
The Late Baroque period in France saw the evolving decoration of thePalace of Versailles, including theHall of Mirrors and theChapel. Later in the period, during the reign ofLouis XV, a new, more ornate variant, theRocaille style, or French Rococo, appeared in Paris and flourished between about 1723 and 1759.[25] The most prominent example was the salon of the Princess inHôtel de Soubise in Paris, designed byGermain Boffrand andCharles-Joseph Natoire (1735–40).[26][27]
Christopher Wren was the leading figure of the late Baroque in England, with his reconstruction ofSt. Paul's Cathedral (1675–1711) inspired by the model ofSt. Peter's Basilica in Rome, his plan forGreenwich Hospital (begun 1695), andHampton Court Palace (1690–96). Other British figures of the late Baroque includedInigo Jones forWilton House (1632–1647 and two pupils of Wren,John Vanbrugh andNicholas Hawksmoor, forCastle Howard (1699–1712) andBlenheim Palace (1705–1724).[28]
In theGrand Duchy of Lithuania (which covered the territories of modern-dayLithuania andBelarus), Baroque architecture emerged in the late 16th century and evolved through three main phases: early, mature, and late.[29] The style was initially introduced by theJesuits as part of theCounter-Reformation. The first Baroque monuments were theCorpus Christi Church in Nyasvizh (1587–1593) in modern Belarus and theChurch of St. Casimir in Vilnius (1604–1616) in modern Lithuania.
The Early Baroque (late 16th – early 17th c.) saw the transformation of defensive castles into palace-castle complexes, such asNyasvizhCastle (started 1583),Biržai Castle (1586), andHalshany Castle (c. 1610).[29] In religious architecture, the basilican type of church spread, initially towerless and later with two towers on the main facade (e.g.,Church of St. Francis Xavier, Kaunas,Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in Vilnius).
During the Mature Baroque (second half of 17th – 1730s), the composition of the two-tower basilica stabilized, and facades became more plastically saturated. This period is characterized by the development of large monastic ensembles, such as thePažaislis Monastery in Kaunas, theTytuvėnai Monastery, and thePolotsk Jesuit Collegium.[29][30] The nobility funded the construction of lavish personal residences, including theSapieha Palace,Slushko Palace, andMinor Radvilos Palace in Vilnius, as well as theRuzhany Palace in modern Belarus.[31]
![Interior of the Church of the Visitation in the Pažaislis Monastery, designed by Pietro Puttini, Carlo Puttini and Giovanni Battista Frediani (completed in 1690)[30]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPa%25C5%25BEaislis_Monastery_interior_1%2c_Kaunas%2c_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg)
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![Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Tytuvėnai with a Late Baroque twin-tower façade (completed in 1735)[32]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTytuv%25C4%2597n%25C5%25B3_%25C5%25A0v%25C4%258D._Mergel%25C4%2597s_Marijos_ba%25C5%25BEny%25C4%258Dios_ir_bernardin%25C5%25B3_vienuolyno_ansamblio_%25C5%25A0v%25C4%258D._Mergel%25C4%2597s_Marijos%2c_%25C5%25A0v%25C4%258D._M._Marijos_Angel%25C5%25B3_Karalien%25C4%2597s_ba%25C5%25BEny%25C4%258Dia_-_panoramio.jpg)
![Church of the Holy Trinity, Liškiava Monastery, completed in 1741[33]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aChurch_of_the_Holy_Trinity_in_Li%25C5%25A1kiava%2c_Lithuania_in_2015.jpg)
The Late Baroque (1730s–1780s) gave rise to a distinct regional direction known asVilnian Baroque (or Vilnius Baroque). It formed mainly in sacral architecture following the reconstruction of churches after the Great Northern War and the fires in Vilnius in 1737 and 1747. The style is characterized by pictorial silhouettes, verticalism of proportions, tall and slender towers, openwork and plasticity of facades, and optical effects.[34][35][36][37]
The most prominent architect of this school wasJohann Christoph Glaubitz, who rebuilt theChurch of St. Johns,St. Catherine, and others. Other notable architects includedThomas Zebrowski,Paolo Fontana,Ludwig Hryncewicz,Aleksander Osikiewicz,Pietro Perti, andGiovanni Maria Galli.[34][36] The style was widely adopted by theRuthenian Uniate Church, creating unique monuments with telescoping towers (e.g.,Saint Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk,Bierazviečča,Zhyrovichy Monastery, and churches inBaruny,Talachyn, andVolna).[34] Vilnian Baroque aesthetics also spread to Orthodox churches (e.g., inMahiliou) and secular buildings like the town halls inVitebsk andKaunas.[34]
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![Interior of the Dominican Church of the Holy Spirit in Vilnius, reconstructed in a Late Baroque style in the 17th century[38]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aDominican_Church_of_the_Holy_Spirit%2c_Vilnius%2c_Lithuania_-_Diliff.jpg)
![Interior of the Basilica of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Šiluva (built in 1760–1772) with the Our Lady of Šiluva in the main altar[39]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSiluva_Basilika_Mari%25C3%25A4_Geburt_Innen_Chor_1.JPG)
The specific nature of wood as a building material in the region led to the development of unique Baroque forms in wooden architecture, characterized by tiered towers and specific construction techniques (e.g., the St. George Church inValavieĺ and the St. Michael Church inRubieĺ).[29] By the late 18th century, Baroque began to be replaced by Classicism, often resulting in monuments that combined elements of both styles (e.g.,Sviatsk Palace).
Many of the most extraordinary buildings of the Late Baroque were constructed in Austria, Germany, and Czechia. In Austria, the leading figure wasFischer von Erlach, who built theKarlskirche, the largest church ofVienna, to glorify theHabsburg emperors. These works sometimes borrowed elements from Versailles combined with elements of the Italian Baroque to create grandiose new effects, as in theSchwarzenberg Palace (1715).Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt used grand stairways and ellipses to achieve his effects at the upper and lowerBelvedere Palace in Vienna (1714–1722). In TheAbbey of Melk,Jakob Prandtauer used an abundance ofpolychrome marble and stucco, statuary and ceiling paintings to achieve harmonious and highly theatrical effects.[40]
Another important figure of German Baroque wasBalthasar Neumann (1687–1753), whose works included theWürzburg Residence for thePrince-Bishops of Würzburg, with its famous staircase.[41]
InBohemia, the leading Baroque architect wasChristoph Dientzenhofer, whose building featured complex curves and counter-curves and elliptical forms, makingPrague, like Vienna, a capital of the late Baroque.[42]
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Political and economic crises in the 17th century largely delayed the arrival of the Baroque in Spain until the late period, though the Jesuits strongly promoted it. Its early characteristics were a lavish exterior contrasting with a relatively simple interior and multiple spaces. They carefully planned lighting in the interior to give an impression of mystery. Early 18th century,[43] Notable Spanish examples included the new west façade ofSantiago de Compostela Cathedral, (1738–50), with its spectacular towers, byFernando de Casas Novoa. InSeville,Leonardo de Figueroa was the creator of thePalacio de San Telmo, with a façade inspired by the Italian Baroque. The most ornate works of the Spanish Baroque were made byJose Benito de Churriguera in Madrid and Salamanca. In his work, the buildings are nearly overwhelmed by the ornament of gilded wood, gigantic twisting columns, and sculpted vegetation. His two brothers, Joaquin and Alberto, also made important, if less ornamented, contributions to what became known simply as theChurrigueresque style.[43]
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![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg) | This sectionneeds expansion with: America and American Baroque is too big to be contained in a single section. Expand by country (or region, at least).. You can help byadding to it.(June 2024) |
The Baroque style was imported into Latin America in the 17th century by the Spanish and the Portuguese, particularly by the Jesuits for the construction of churches. The style was sometimes calledChurrigueresque, after the family of Baroque architects inSalamanca. A particularly fine example isZacatecas Cathedral inZacatecas City, in north-central Mexico, with its lavishly sculpted façade and twin bell towers. Another important example isSan Cristobal de las Casas in Mexico.[44] A notable example inBrazil is theSão Bento Monastery inRio de Janeiro. begun in 1617, with additional decoration after 1668. The Metropolitan Tabernacle theMexico City Metropolitan Cathedral, to the right of the main cathedral, built by Lorenzo Rodríguez between 1749 and 1760, to house the archives and vestments of the archbishop, and to receive visitors.[45]
Portuguese colonial architecture was modeled after the architecture ofLisbon, different from the Spanish style. The most notable architect in Brazil wasAleijadinho, who was native of Brazil, half-Portuguese, and self-taught. His most famous work is theChurch of Saint Francis of Assisi (Ouro Preto).[46]
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![Havana Cathedral, Cuba, built between 1748-1777[47]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCathedral_(3209489947).jpg)
During the 1740s a new Ottoman or Turkish "Baroque" style[a] emerged in its full expression and rapidly replaced the style of the Tulip Period.[49][50] This shift signaled the final end to the classical style.[51] Challenging the view that the style was derivative and inauthentic, this chapter explains the Ottoman Baroque as a conscious endeavor to refashion Istanbul into a modern city boasting a globally resonant mode of architecture. Such rebranding was part of a larger move to reaffirm the empire’s status in an age of intensified transregional interaction and dialogue.[52]
The most important monument heralding the new Ottoman Baroque style is theNuruosmaniye Mosque complex, begun by Mahmud I in October 1748 and completed by his successor,Osman III (to whom it is dedicated), in December 1755.[53]Doğan Kuban describes it as the "most important monumental construction after the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne", marking the integration of European culture into Ottoman architecture and the rejection of the classical Ottoman style.[54] It also marked the first time since the Sultan Ahmed I Mosque (early 17th century) that an Ottoman sultan built his own imperial mosque complex in Istanbul, thus inaugurating the return of this tradition.[55]
TheAyazma Mosque in Üsküdar was built between 1757–58 and 1760–61.[56][57] It is essentially a smaller version of the Nuruosmaniye Mosque, signaling the importance of the latter as a new model to emulate.[58] Although smaller, it is relatively tall for its proportions, enhancing its sense of height. This trend towards height was pursued in later mosques.[59]
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Baroque architecture often used visual and theatrical effects, designed to amaze and awe the viewer:
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