Bangka Malay
bahase Bangka base Bangka
بهاس بڠك
Native to	Indonesia (Province ofBangka Belitung Islands)
Region	Bangka Island
Ethnicity	Bangka Malay,Bangka Chinese, etc.
Native speakers	(340,000 cited 2000 census)[1]
Language family	Austronesian Malayo-Polynesian (disputed) Malayic Bangka Malay
Dialects	Mentok Belinyuliat Sungailiat Pangkalpinang Toboali Bangka Cina
Writing system	Latin (Malay alphabet) Jawi
Language codes
ISO 639-3	mfb
Glottolog	bang1365
ELP	Bangka
Areas where Bangka Malay is a majority
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Bangka orBangka Malay (bahase Bangka orbase Bangka,Belinyu dialect:baso Bangka,Jawi: بهاس بڠك), is aMalayic language spoken in Indonesia, specifically on the island ofBangka in theBangka Belitung Islands ofSumatra. It is primarily spoken by the nativeMalay people of Bangka, as well as byimmigrants from other parts of Indonesia and theBangka Chinese, who use it as their second language in addition to their nativeHakka. Bangka Malay is spoken exclusively on the island of Bangka, although it is related toPalembang Malay andBelitung Malay spoken on neighboring islands. There are five different dialects of Bangka Malay: thePangkalpinang dialect,Mentok dialect,Belinyu dialect,Sungailiat dialect, andToboali dialect. Each of these dialects has its own subdialects. Additionally, the Bangka Chinese community speaks their own dialect of Bangka Malay, which is influenced by Hakka. The differences between each of these dialects are mostly lies in theirphonology andmorphology, except for the Bangka Cina dialect, which also has slight differences in vocabulary.^[2]

In Bangka, Bangka Malay serves as thelingua franca among the island's diverse ethnic groups. It has been influenced by Palembang Malay, owing to Bangka's historical association with thePalembang Sultanate,^[3] as well as by Hakka, introduced by Chinese migrants, and standardIndonesian, the national language of Indonesia.^{[citation needed]} Bangka Malay exhibits notable phonological and lexical differences from standard Indonesian and other Malay dialects, while its morphological structures generally remain identical, facilitating mutual intelligibility. It incorporates distinctive vocabulary that distinguishes it from both standard Indonesian and other dialects.

Bangka Malay is aMalayic language. Speakers of Malayic language are spread from Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,Southern Thailand, to the southernmost part of the Philippines. Malay is a member of theAustronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Taiwan, Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean, with a smaller number in continental Asia.Malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although these languages are not necessarilymutually intelligible to any extent, their similarities are often quite apparent. In more conservative languages like Malay, many roots have come with relatively little change from their common ancestor,Proto-Austronesian language. There are manycognates found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.^[4]

Bangka Malay is closely related to other Malay dialects likePalembang Malay andBelitung Malay spoken on nearby islands, but closer toLoncong Malay spoken bynomadic sea gypsies from Belitung. However, Bangka Malay has its own distinct features in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation that set it apart from standard Indonesian and other Malay varieties.

Bangka Malay is exclusively spoken on Bangka and its surrounding islands, as well as by the Bangka diaspora living in other parts of Indonesia.^[5] However, Bangka Malay is not the only language spoken on the island. TheChinese community in Bangka, who migrated fromGuangdong due to the booming tin mining industry in the 19th century, primarily speakHakka orMandarin, though many also speak Bangka Malay as asecond language.^[6] On the other hand, theOrang Laut, sea nomads inhabiting the coastal regions of Bangka and the surrounding islands, speak a distinct variety of Malay known asLoncong or Sekak.^[7] Additionally, due totransmigration policies enacted during theDutch colonial era and continuing through theNew Order, many immigrants fromJava and other parts of Indonesia have settled in Bangka, bringing their own languages and cultures with them.^[8]

Like otherregional languages in Indonesia, Bangka Malay serves as an important and effective means of communication, especially within family settings, among peers, and in informal gatherings.^[9] In formal settings such as wedding parties, ceremonies, public meetings, and sermons in mosques or prayer rooms, people in Bangka almost always useIndonesian, sometimes mixed with Bangka Malay. Indonesian is also used in government offices, schools, and official ceremonies. While the language of instruction in schools is Indonesian, in the early grades of elementary school, teachers who are native to Bangka often use Bangka Malay to present lessons. In markets, Bangka Malay is generally used among Bangka people, whilecode-mixing with other regional languages, such asPalembang Malay, is common among people from outside Bangka.^[10] Additionally, with the growing influence of Indonesian as the national language, Bangka people are increasinglycode-switching and code-mixing between Bangka Malay and Indonesian.^[11]

Bangka Malay holds a prestigious position among its speakers. This becomes apparent when students, university students, or officials returning from assignments outside Bangka converse with local elders or community leaders—they typically opt for Bangka Malay over Indonesian.^[10] This choice of language conveys a deeper respect to the elders and community leaders compared to using Indonesian. In fact, speaking Indonesian in such contexts after returning from outside Bangka can be seen as disrespectful.^[10]

There are five recognized dialects of Bangka Malay, namely Mentok, Belinyu, Sungailiat, Pangkalpinang, and Toboali, each corresponding to administrative units in Bangka.^[12] The Mentok dialect is often referred to as the West Bangka dialect, the Belinyu dialect as the North Bangka dialect, and the Toboali dialect as the South Bangka dialect. Meanwhile, the Sungailiat and Pangkalpinang dialects are collectively known as the Central Bangka dialect. In addition, the Chinese community in Bangka speaks a distinct dialect of Bangka Malay infused with Hakka influences.^[13] Each of these dialects consists of several sub-dialects, which may differ from one district or village to another.^[14] Most of the differences among these dialects primarily lie inphonology andmorphology, with vocabulary differences being relatively minor. For example, the Belinyu dialect shows significant phonological influence fromPalembang Malay, where words that typically end with [a] in standard Malay and Indonesian change to [o], such asapa 'what' becomingapo,kita 'we' becomingkito, andtiga 'three' becomingtigo.^[15][16] The Belinyu dialect also shares similar pronouns with Palembang Malay, such askamek 'we (exclusive)'. Additionally, due to its interaction with Palembang Malay, the Belinyu dialect has adopted words fromJavanese, includingwong 'people' andlanang 'male'. Other Bangka Malay dialects, on the other hand, exhibit similarities with the Malay dialect spoken inRiau andPeninsular Malaysia, where words that typically end with [a] change to [e], such asapa 'what' becomingape,rasa 'taste' becomingrase, and so on.^[17]

There are some lexical differences among different dialects, but they are limited, and each dialect is mostlymutually intelligible with the others. Below are examples of lexical differences in Bangka Malay across various dialects:

The Bangka Cina dialect, spoken by the Chinese community in Bangka, incorporates loanwords from Hakka. For example,amoi 'Chinese girls', which is derived from the Hakka word â-moi (阿妹),cion 'beautiful', which is derived from the Hakka word chiâng (靚), andhoklo 'rich person', which is derived from the Hakka word ho̍k-ló (學佬).

Bangka Malay, like many other regional languages in Indonesia, lacks a standardized phonological system. Each dialect may also have unique phonological features not found in other dialects. Nevertheless, the phonological system of most Bangka Malay dialects is largely based on standardIndonesian orthography.

LikeIndonesian, all Bangka Malay dialects have the same number ofvowels, possessing six phonemic vowels: i, ə, e, a, o, and u.^[18][19]

Notes:

• In writing,/e/ and/ə/ are both represented as⟨e⟩.
• Final/a/ inBaku Malay/Indonesian correspond to/ə/ in Bangka Malay, soBaku Malay/Indonesianada/ada/ "to have" corresponds to Bangka Malayade/adə/.
• Baku Malay/Indonesian/i/ and/u/ in closed syllables correspond to lower/e/ and/o/ in Bangka Malay, soBaku Malay/Indonesianpasir/pasir/ "sand" andtaruh/taruh/ "to place" correspond to Bangka Malaypaser/paser/ andtarok/taroʔ/.
• Unlike almost all other Malayic languages, Bangka preservesProto-Malayic*ə in final closed syllables (lier/liər/, from*liher "neck"). This feature is also shared byBetawi (and thereforeIndonesian slang) and thePalembang Lama dialect, considered within a relic area.^[20]

All Bangka Malay dialects have 19 consonants, similar toIndonesian andStandard Malay. However, there are some differences in the articulation of certain consonants. For example, in Standard Malay and Indonesian, the consonant "w" is an approximant velar consonant, while in Bangka Malay, "w" is an approximant labial consonant.^[21][22]

Notes:

• In writing, the following phonemes are represented as thus:
  • /ŋ/ is⟨ng⟩
  • /ɲ/ is⟨ny⟩
  • /t͡ʃ/ is⟨c⟩
  • /d͡ʒ/ is⟨j⟩
  • /ʔ/ is⟨k⟩
  • /j/ is⟨y⟩
• /ʔ/ only occurs root-finally.

In Bangka Malay, there are almost no words that begin withdiphthongs. Generally, diphthongs are found at the end of words.^[23] In all dialects of the Bangka Malay language, there are three diphthongs, namely /ai̯/, /oi̯/, and /au̯/. The diphthongs /ai̯/ and /oy/ are fronting diphthongs, and the diphthong /aw/ is a backing diphthong. The use of these diphthongs can be seen below:

• /ai̯/:pantay 'beach',sungay 'river'
• /oi̯/:oy 'oi',amboy 'wow'
• /au̯/:suraw 'surau',bulaw 'fur'

The Pangkalpinang dialect has two additional diphthongs, which are /ow/ and /ey/.^[24] The Pangkalpinang dialect commonly employs the diphthongs /aw/ or /ow/ at the end of words, whereas other dialects typically use the vowel /u/. In addition, the Pangkalpinang dialect uses the diphthong /ey/ at the end of words, while other dialects use the vowel /i/ at the end of words. The use of these diphthongs can be seen below:

• /ou̯/:barow 'new' (other dialects:baru),batow 'stone' (other dialects:batu)
• /ei̯/:jarey 'finger' (other dialects:jari),kuncey 'key' (other dialects:kunci)

Along withIndonesian,standard Malay, and otherMalayic languages, the word order in Bangka Malay is typicallysubject-verb-object (SVO). While there are notable exceptions, the grammar structure of Bangka Malay shares many similarities with Indonesian and Standard Malay.^[25]

Bangka Malay has a number ofaffixes that can join with the base word to form an affixed word. In Bangka Malay, like other Malayic languages, there are three types of affixes:prefixes,infixes, andsuffixes.^[26] Prefixes are affixes attached at the beginning of a word, suffixes are affixes added at the end of a word, and infixes are affixes inserted in the middle of a word. Similar to other Malayic languages, Bangka Malay words are composed of a root or a root plus derivational affixes. The root is the primary lexical unit of a word and is usually bisyllabic, of the shape CV(C)CV(C). Affixes are "glued" onto roots (which are either nouns or verbs) to alter or expand the primary meaning associated with a given root, effectively generating new words.

In every dialect of Bangka Malay, there are seven prefixes:N-, be-, te-, di-, peN-, se- andke-. Specifically in the Toboali dialect, the prefixse- changes toke- based on its phonological characteristics.^[27] These five dialects of Bangka Malay do not exhibit significant phonological changes in prefixes morphophonemically, in relation to other morphemes.^[27]

The prefixN- with a base form of verbs indicates 'performing the action described by the base form', such asmerikin for 'counting'. When applied to nouns, the prefixN- signifies (1) 'becoming', as seen inmengarami for 'becoming salt', (2) 'making', as inmerempah for 'making spices', (3) 'enjoying' or 'drinking', exemplified byngopi meaning 'drinking coffee'. When used with adjectives,N- denotes 'becoming', likemembesak for 'becoming large' or 'brightening up'.^[28]

In these dialects, the prefixN- changes to /n/ when followed by a word starting with a vowel phoneme.^[29] For example:

• N- +kapur 'calcium' →ngapur 'calcification'
• N- +kopi 'coffee' →ngopi 'to have a coffee'
• N- +kacaw 'messy' →ngacaw 'to mess up'

In those five dialects, the prefix N- changes to /n/ when followed by a word starting with the phoneme /g/. In the Mentok dialect, however, the phoneme /g/ does not undergolenition, whereas in other dialects, the phoneme /g/ undergo lenition.^[29] For example:

• N- +gigit 'bite' →nggigit 'to bite' (other dialects isngigit)
• N- + goyang 'shake'→ nggoyang 'to shake' (other dialects isngoyan)
• N- +gunting 'cut' →nggunting 'cut' (other dialects isnguntin)

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefixN- changes to /m/ when followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /p/. In this case, the phoneme /p/ will disappear.^[29] For example:

• N- +pacul 'hoe' →macul 'to hoe'
• N- +pegang 'hold' →megang 'to hold'
• N- +pukul 'punch' →mukul 'to punch'

In all five dialects of the Bangka Malay language, the prefixN- changes to /m/ when followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /b/. In this case, the phoneme /b/ does not undergo lenition in the Mentok dialect, whereas in the other dialects, the phoneme /b/ undergo lenition.^[30] For example:

• N- +beli 'buy' →mbeli 'to buy' (other dialects ismeli)
• N- +buang 'throw' →mbuan 'to throw' (other dialects ismuan)
• N- +bunuh 'kill' →mbunuh 'to kill' (other dialects ismunuh)

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefixN- changes to /ŋe/ when followed by a word that consists of only one syllable.^[30] For example:

• N- +bom 'bomb' →ngebom 'to bomb'
• N- +cet 'paint' →ngecet 'to paint'
• N- +las 'weld' →ngelas 'to weld'

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefixN- changes to /ɲ/ when followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /s/.^[30] For example:

• N- +sapu 'broom' →nyapu 'to sweep'
• N- +sikat 'brush' →nyapu 'to brush'
• N- +sipak 'kick' →nyipak 'to kick'

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefixN- changes to /n/ when followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /t/. In this case, the phoneme /t/ will undergo lenition.^[31] For example:

• N- +tulis 'write' →nulies 'to write'
• N- +tangkep 'catch' →nangkep 'to catch'
• N- +tunjok 'point' →nunjok 'to appoint'

In all five dialects of the Bangka Malay language, the prefixN- changes to /n/ when followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /d/. In this case, the phoneme /d/ does not undergo lenition in the Mentok dialect, whereas in the other dialects, the phoneme /d/ undergo lenition.^[31] For example:

• N- +dapet 'get' →ndapet 'to get' (other dialects isnapet)
• N- +darat 'land' →ndarat 'to land' (other dialects isnarat)
• N- +denger 'hear' →ndenger 'to hear' (other dialects isnenger)

When followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /l/ or the phoneme /j/, the prefixN- changes to /n/. In this case, the phoneme /l/ or /j/ does not undergo lenition in the Mentok dialect. In the other dialects, the prefixN- changes to /ɲ/. In this case, the phoneme /l/ or /j/ undergo lenition.^[32] For example:

• N- +cuci 'wash' →nyuci 'to get' (other dialects isncuci)
• N- +cube 'try' →nyube 'to try' (other dialects isncube)
• N- +jual 'sell' →nyual 'to hear' (other dialects isnjual)

When followed by a word that begins with the phoneme /l/, /r/, /w/, or /y/, the prefixN- changes to /ŋe/ in the Mentok dialect. In this case, the phonemes /l/, /r/, /w/, and /y/ do not undergo lenition. In the other dialects, the prefixN- changes to /me/. In this case, the phonemes /l/, /r/, /w/, and /y/ also do not undergo lenition.^[32] For example:

• N- +lapis 'layer' →ngelapis 'to layer' (other dialects ismelapis)
• N- +lipet 'fold' →ngelipet 'to fold' (other dialects ismelipet)
• N- +rase 'taste' →ngerase 'to taste' (other dialects ismerase)

Some speakers of the Belinyu, Sungailiat, and Pangkalpinang dialects also use the allomorphs /meŋ/, /mem/, /men/, and /meɲ/ alongside the allomorphs /ŋ/, /m/, /n/, and /ɲ/.^[33] For example:

• N- +buang 'throw' →membuang ormuang 'to throw'
• N- +tulis 'write' →menulis ornulis 'to write'
• N- +sipak 'kick' →menyipak ornyipak 'to kick'

The prefixbe- with a base form of verbs signifies 'often performing the action described by the base form', such asbeburu for 'often hunting'. The prefixbe- with a base form of nouns denotes (1) 'having', as inbeanak for 'having children', (2) 'ascending', likebeuto for 'ascending a hill' orbermobil for 'using a car', (3) 'wearing', as inbesepan for 'wearing trousers', (4) 'engaging in', such asbekebon for 'engaging in gardening' or 'gardening', and (5) 'containing', exemplified byberacun meaning 'containing poison'.^[28]

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefixbe- changes to /ber/ when attached to a word that begins with a vowel phoneme. However, when attached to a word that begins with a different phoneme, the prefixbe- does not change.^[33] For example:

• be- +perang 'war' →berperang 'to wage war'
• be- +asep 'smoke' →berasep 'smoky'
• be- +aek 'water' →beraek 'watery'

The prefixte- with a base form of verbs signifies 'completed, unintentional, or capable of performing the action described by the base form', such asteangkat for 'accidentally lifted' or 'able to be lifted'. The prefixte- with a base form of nouns means 'to emit', liketekemah for 'to emit a smell' or 'to urinate'. The prefixte- with a base form of adjectives means 'more', as intepedas for 'more spicy' or 'spicier'.^[28]

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefixte- changes to /ter/ when attached to a word that begins with a vowel phoneme, whereas when attached to a word that begins with a different phoneme, the prefixte- does not change.^[33] For example:

• te- + angket 'lift' →terangket 'get lifted'
• te- + makan 'eat' →termakan 'get eaten'
• te- + buang 'throw' →terbuang 'get thrown'

The prefixpeN- with a base form of verbs denotes 'someone or something that performs the action described by the base form', such aspencuci for 'someone or something that washes'. PrefixpeN- with a base form of adjectives signifies 'having the quality of being lazy' or 'a tool for becoming', as seen inpenalus for 'a tool for becoming smooth' or 'a smoother'.^[28]

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefixdi- does not have any alternates. In these dialects, the prefixpeN- changes topen- when preceding words starting with /j/, /t/, /d/, /e/. In this case, /j/ and /t/ undergo lenition, while /d/, /e/, or /j/ do not undergo lenition.^[34] For example:

• peN- + tari 'dance' →penari 'dancer'
• peN- + dateng 'come' →pendateng 'newcomer'
• peN- + jale 'net' →penjale 'netter'

PrefixpeN- changes topen when preceding a word that begins with the phoneme /s/, and the phoneme /s/ undergo lenition.^[34] For example:

• peN- + sapu 'broom' →penyapu 'sweeper'
• peN- + suap 'bribe' →penyuap 'briber'
• peN- + sayang 'care' →penyayang 'carer'

PrefixpeN- changes to /pe/ when preceding a word that begins with the phoneme /l/, /r/, /w/, or /j/.^[34] For example

• peN- + wares 'inherit' →pewares 'inheriter'
• peN- + wangi 'fragrant' →pewangi 'fragrance'
• peN- + rase 'taste' →perase 'taster'

The prefixse- with a base form of verbs signifies 'doing an action together with others', such asseminum for 'drinking together'. Prefixse- with a base form of nouns means 'using something together', likeseromah for 'using a house together' or 'living together'. Prefixse- with a base form of adjectives denotes 'similar', as insebesar for 'as big as' or 'of the same size'.^[28]

In all five dialects of Bangka Malay, the prefixse- does not have any alternates.^[35] For example:

• se- +romah 'house' →seromah 'whole house'
• se- +tinggi 'tall' →setinggi 'as tall as'
• se- +luas 'wide' →seluas 'as wide as'

The prefixke- with a base form of verbs means 'to be affected by', such askecopet for 'to be affected by pickpocketing' or 'to get pickpocketed'. Prefixke- with a base form of adjectives signifies 'being viewed', likeketua for 'being viewed as a leader' or 'leader'.^[28]

In Bangka Malay, the prefixke- does not have any alternates.^[35] For example:

• ke- + tue 'old' →ketue 'leader, elder'
• ke- + kaseh 'love' →kekaseh 'lover'
• ke- + liet 'see' →keliet 'visible'

In Bangka Malay, there exist three infixes:-el-,-em-,-er-. However, these infixes are not that productive in forming new words within this language. There are very few newly formed words utilizing these infixes across the five dialects of Bangka Malay. In Bangka Malay, infix is defined as 'many or multiple', such asgerigi which means 'many teeth'.^[35] For example:

• -el- + tunjuk 'point' →telunjuk 'index finger'
• -el- + tapak 'footstep' →telapak 'palm'
• -em- + guncan 'shake' →gemuncan 'shaking'
• -em- + guruh 'thunder' →gemuruh 'thundering'

In Bangka Malay, there are three suffixes:-ken,-ne, and-an. The usage of these suffixes varies across the five dialects of Bangka Malay.^[36]

The suffix-ken with a base form of verbs means 'to put into or to make into', similar to the suffix-kan in Standard Indonesian and Malay, such assarongken for 'to put into a sheath' or 'to sheath'. The suffix-ken with a base form of adjectives means 'to make more', such askecitken for 'to make smaller' or 'to shrink'.^[37] The suffix-ken varies across different dialects. The Mentok, Belinyu, and Toboali dialects use-ken, the Sungailiat dialect also uses-ken, but pronounced as /kən/, and the Pangkalpinang dialect uses-kan.^[36] The usage of the suffix is shown below:

• duduk 'sit' +-ken → dudukken 'to make someone sit'
• minom 'drink' +-ken → minomken 'to make someone drink'
• lari 'run' +-ken → lariken 'to make someone run'

The suffix-nye with a base form of verbs or adjectives denotes 'something related to the matter mentioned in the base form', as seen inlarinye, which refers to 'something related to running or its running'. The equivalent in Standard Indonesian and Malay for this suffix is-nya.^[37] The suffix also varies across different dialects. The Mentok dialect uses-nye, the Belinyu dialect uses-nyo, while the Sungailiat, Toboali, and Pangkalpinang dialects use-e, pronounced as /ə/.^[38] The usage is shown below:

• tinggi 'tall' +-nye → tingginye 'so tall'
• malam 'night' +-nye → malamnye 'so dark'
• puteh 'white' +-nye → putihnye 'so white'

The suffix-an, in Bangka Malay, is only used with verbs to form new words meaning 'tool or result of performing the action indicated by the base form', such astimbangan 'weight scale', which means 'tool for or result of weighing'.^[37] The suffix-an is only used in the Mentok, Sungailiat, and Pangkalpinang dialects. The Belinyu dialect often does not use the suffix-an. In fact, the Toboali dialect does not use this suffix at all. In the Belinyu dialect, words likecucian 'laundry' are expressed asbaju kotor andtulisan 'writing' astulis.^[38] The usage is shown below:

• main 'play' +-an→ mainan 'toy'
• hari 'day' +-an→ harian 'daily routine'
• cuci 'wash' +-an→ cucian 'laundry'

The five dialects in Bangka Malay do not show variations in the use of fullreduplication. Full reduplication is applied to nouns, verbs, and adjectives.^[37] Full reduplication with nouns is used to indicate plurality or forms resembling the base form. For example:

• kude-kude 'horse-horse'
• rumah-rumah 'house-house'
• pal-pal 'pole-pole' (fromDutch)

Full reduplication with verbs in Bangka Malay is used to indicate performing the action described by the base form repeatedly or continuously.^[39] For example:

• duduk-duduk 'sitting idly'
• jalan-jalan 'walking around'
• makan-makan 'eating together'

Full reduplication with adjectives in Bangka Malay is used to express intensity or to indicate being constantly in the state described by the base form.^[39] For example:

• pintar-pintar 'smart'
• rajin-rajin 'hardworking'
• sakit-sakit 'sick'

Partial reduplication with verbs is used to indicate repeated actions or reciprocal actions described by the base form. In this case, the Belinyu dialect uses the prefixbe-, while other dialects use the prefixN-.^[39] For example:

• begebuk-gebuk 'to fight one another' (other dialects isgebuk-mengebuk)
• betarik-tarik 'to pull one another' (other dialects istarik-menarik)
• betiru-tiru 'to mimic one another' (other dialects istiru-meniru)

Nouns can be combined with the suffixes-ku and-e as well as the prefixpeN- or can be directly linked with numerals.^[40] There are some base words that are already counted as nouns. For example:

• burung 'bird'
• bini 'wife'
• sungot 'mouth'
• telo 'egg'
• asuk 'dog' (fromJavanese)

Nouns can also be identified through a number of distinguishing features. For example, numerals are a stable determinant of nouns. Noun-forming affixes include-ku,-e, andpeN-.^[41] Examples include:

• ketue 'leader' or 'elder'
• pemaling 'thief'
• penjerat 'trapper'
• umahku 'my house'
• binie 'his wife'

Nouns can also be combined withpersonal pronouns anddemonstrative pronouns, such asika' 'your',kite 'our (exclusive)',ini 'this' oritu 'that'.^[40] For example:

• umah ikak 'your house'
• umah kite 'our house'
• umah ini 'this house'
• umah itu 'that house'

Nouns can also be combined with quantitative structural words, such asbanyak 'many' ortiap 'every'.^[42] For example:

• banyak umah tebakar 'many houses are on fire'
• banyak urang nanam kupi 'many people are planting coffees'
• bakarung-karung kupi 'sacks of coffee'
• tiap urang Islam 'every Muslims'

Verbs are words that can be used as commands or words that have the affixesme-,di-,be-,ke-,-kan.^[42] There are several verbs that are already in the form of base words. For example:

• ambik 'take'
• duduk 'sit'
• kejar 'chase'
• tugak 'call'

The affixes that determine verbs are as follows:

• mawak 'to bring'
• nyerong 'to push'
• dicekek 'got strangled'
• dimakan 'got eaten'
• betemu 'to meet'
• bebunyi 'to sound'
• kedengar 'to be heard'
• kepanas 'to feel hot'
• basuhken 'to wash'
• polidangken 'to throw'
• teinjak 'got stepped'
• tegantung 'got hanged'

The structural wordlah in commands serves as a determinant for verbs.^[43] For example:

• pangkulah 'to grasp'
• bacelah 'to read'
• simpenlah 'to keep'

Adjectives are words that can be compared and occupy specific positions in sentences. Adjectives can be basic words consisting of two syllables or occasionally just one syllable.^[43] For example:

• kayo 'rich'
• kutor 'dirty'
• burok 'bad'
• besak 'big'
• kecit 'small'

Adjectives can also take the form of derived words, which can be created by adding prefixes or through reduplication.^[43] For example:

• sepacak-pacake 'as much as possible'
• sekecit-kecite 'as small as possible'
• tekayo 'richest'
• tetinggi 'highest'

There are several adverbs that can function as determiners for adjectives. These adverbs can occupy positions both before and after adjectives in sentences.^[44] Examples includeumon 'really',sikit 'a little',paling 'most', anddak 'not'. The usage of these words can be seen below:

• panas umon 'really hot'
• kutor umon 'really dirty'
• merah sikit 'a little red'
• maju sikit 'a little forward'
• paling gancang 'the fastest'
• paling membantu 'the most helpful'
• dak luas 'not wide'
• dak sihat 'not healthy'

Adverb can occupy both the initial and final positions in a sentence. Examples of adverbs includeagik 'again',di sini 'here',pelan 'slowly', andterang umon 'clearly'.^[44] Their usage can be seen in the following examples:

• Urang tu ngisahken kisahe sekaliagik. 'The man told his story once again'
• Urang tu ngisahken kisahedi sini. 'The man tells his story here.'
• Die nyupirpelan. 'He's driving the car slowly.'
• Terang umon die ngisah kisahe. 'He's telling the story clearly.'

The degree of comparison of adverbs can be divided into comparative and superlative.^[45] Examples of comparative adverbs are:

• lambat nue 'slower'
• jelas nue 'clealer'

Examples of superlative adverbs are:

• selambete 'slowest'
• sejelase 'clearest'

Pronouns in Bangka Malay can be divided intopersonal pronouns,demonstrative pronouns andinterrogative pronouns.

This table shows an overview over the most commonly and widely used personal pronouns in Bangka Malay.

There can exist different pronouns in Bangka Malay with the same English equivalent, depending on the politeness level or other usage. For example, "I" in Bangka Malay can be translated asaku orsaye.Saye is usually used in more polite situations, whileaku is the opposite.

The usage of personal pronouns varies among the dialects of Bangka Malay. For example,sayo 'I',kamek 'we (exclusive)', andkito 'we (inclusive)' are primarily used in the Belinyu dialect, while other dialects usesaye,kami, andkite respectively.^[46] The wordente 'you', borrowed fromArabic, is primarily used in the Central Bangka dialect (Pangkalpinang andSungailiat).^[47] The wordikak can have different meanings depending on the dialect. In the Mentok dialect, it means 'you,' whereas in the Toboali dialect, it means 'them.'

Examples of interrogative pronouns in Bangka Malay includeape/apo 'what',siape/sape/sapo 'who/whose',macem mane/cemane 'how',hape 'who (Toboali dialect)',berape 'how much',sebile 'when',hebile 'when (Toboali dialect)', andngape 'why'. The usage of the aforementioned words are shown below:

• Ape gawe ikak? 'What are your jobs?'
• Eteksape ni masok dapor kite ni? 'Whose duck came into our kitchen?'
• Cobelah pakai akelcemane care e bise pulang. 'Try to use your wits to figure out how you can go home.'
• Berape angke plat motor ka? 'What is your motorcycle's license plate number?'
• Yosebile bawak urang rumah e ke sini? 'When will you bring your wife here?'
• Ngape ka begegese cem tu, santai bai. 'Why are you so restless? Just calm down.'

There are two demonstrative pronouns in Bangka Malay.Ni "this, these" is used for a noun generally near to the speaker.Tu "that, those" is used for a noun generally far from the speaker. Either may sometimes be equivalent to English "the". There is no difference between singular and plural. Example of the usage of these words are shown below:

• Tolong isik angen ban motorkuni. 'Please fill up my motorbike's tires.'
• Belagak e kani. You are so arrogant.'
• Nasik di atas mejatu lah basik. 'The rice on the table is already spoiled.'
• Kanak-kanaktu maen bal terus. 'The children keep playing the ball.'

Like other Malayic languages, Bangka Malay features several unique vocabularies that are not found inStandard Malay orIndonesian. Additionally, each dialect within Bangka Malay has its own lexical differences. As Bangka was historically governed by thePalembang Sultanate, there has been significant lexical influence fromPalembang Malay on Bangka Malay, particularly in the Belinyu dialect.^[15] Bangka Malay has absorbed loanwords from Palembang Malay, such assikok 'one',betino 'female', andmato 'eye'. In addition, under the influence of Palembang Malay, Bangka Malay has incorporated a significant number ofJavanese loanwords, as Javanese was once the court language of the Palembang Sultanate.^[48] Terms such asbuntut 'tail' andkuping 'ear' have entered Bangka Malay via Palembang Malay, originating from Javanese. The influence of Javanese and otherregional languages on Bangka Malay may have increased due to the influx ofmigrants from other parts of Indonesia to Bangka. With Indonesian holding the status of the national language and serving as the language of education and business in Indonesia, Bangka Malay has gradually begun to absorb many loanwords from Indonesian. This phenomenon is not only observed in Bangka Malay, but also in other regional languages throughout the country.

There is also some influence of foreign languages on Bangka Malay, notably fromHakka,Dutch andArabic. The influx of immigrants fromGuangdong in the 19th century led to a significantHakka community settling in Bangka. As a result, Bangka Malay has incorporated vocabulary from Hakka. As Bangka was once underDutch rule, similar to other parts of Indonesia, it adopted a few loanwords from Dutch. Some words derived from Dutch in Bangka Malay are not found in standard Indonesian or other languages, such asbal 'ball', which in standard Indonesian and Malay is translated asbola, as well asuto 'car' which in standard Indonesian and Malay is translated asmobil orkereta respectively.^[49] Arabic words entered Bangka Malay due to thespread of Islam orArab migration to Bangka,^[50] examples includeafdhol 'better' andente 'you'.

Below are examples of commonly used Bangka Malay vocabulary in various dialects, along with their Indonesian and English translations:

Bangka Malay was historically written in theJawi script, also known as Arab-Melayu or Gundul script. This script was introduced during the rule of thePalembang Sultanate in Bangka.^[51] In the past, many manuscripts found in Bangka are written in the Jawi script.^[52] The usage of the script gradually diminishes during the Dutch colonization, due to the introduction of formal education which uses the Latin script.^[53] Today, the use of the Jawi script for day-to-day communication is very rare. It is now primarily reserved for cultural purposes, such as writingcalligraphy.^[54]

Since theDutch colonial era, the people of Bangka have predominantly used theLatin script with theIndonesian orthography. Consequently, the orthography in Bangka Malay has undergone several changes. During the Dutch era, the Bangka Malay-speaking community used theVan Ophuijsen Spelling System. From 1947 to 1972, they used theRepublican Spelling System. Since 1972, the Bangka Malay-speaking community has been using the Enhanced Spelling System.^[55] Nevertheless, the earlier Latin orthographic systems still have a significant influence on the Bangka Malay-speaking community. Many of them, especially the older generation, have not fully adopted the Enhanced Spelling System. The influence of the old orthographic systems is clearly evident in the writing of words containing letters that were replaced by other letters in the Enhanced Spelling System.^[53]

There are still many people, possibly a significant number, who write words likecube 'to try',naman 'delicious', andjangui 'chin' with spellings such aschube,nyaman, anddjanggu respectively.^[53] When writing reduplicated words and prepositions, it appears that many people in Bangka have not yet adopted the Enhanced Spelling System. They write reduplicated words using the numeral two and connect prepositions directly with the following noun. For instance, the phrasedikulamkulam 'in the ponds' is written asdikulam2, which is still based on the old Republican Spelling System, whereas according to the Enhanced Spelling System, it should be written asdi kulam-kulam. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Bangka Malay-speaking community has not yet adopted a uniform orthographic system for writing their language with the Latin alphabet.^[53]

Like otherMalayic languages, Bangka Malay has a tradition of oral literature in the form of poetry andprose.^[10] Each region in Bangka may have its own unique version of oral literature. Oral literature in the form of prose consists of folk tales. Poetry, on the other hand, includes various forms such as pantun, campak, mantra, and jampi. The Bangka Malay pantun has a physical structure consisting of: diction, imagery, concrete words, figurative language, as well as rhyme and rhythm. The meaning in pantun is built through an inner structure consisting of: themes, feelings, tones, as well as atmosphere and message.^[56] In Bangka, Pantun serves functions such as communication, cultural identity, embellishment of oral traditions, means of propagation, educational tool, embodiment of customs, entertainment, cultural symbols, fostering heroism, and as a means to enhance humanity among the Bangka Malay community.^[56] Campak is a local call-and-response type of pantun used in traditional ceremonies to accompany the Campak dance, a traditional dance originating from Bangka.^[57]

Below are some examples of pantuns that originated from Bangka along with its Indonesian and English translation:

Bangka Malay test ofWikipedia atWikimedia Incubator

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