Since the 1960s, park accommodations have been open all year, with annual tourism visits to Banff increasing to over 5 million in the 1990s.[5] Millions more pass through the park on theTrans-Canada Highway.[6] As Banff has over three million visitors annually, the health of its ecosystem has been threatened. In the mid-1990s,Parks Canada responded by initiating a two-year study which resulted in management recommendations and new policies that aim to preserve ecological integrity.
The mountains are formed from sedimentary rocks that were pushed east over newer rock strata, between 80 and 55 million years ago. Over the past few million years, glaciers have at times covered most of the park; today they are found only on the mountain slopes, though they include theColumbia Icefield, the largest uninterrupted glacial mass in the Rockies. Erosion from water and ice have carved the mountains into their current shapes.
Throughout its history, Banff National Park has been shaped by tension betweenconservationist and land exploitation interests. The park was established on November 25, 1885, as Banff Hot Springs Reserve,[7] in response to conflicting claims over who discoveredhot springs there and who had the right to develop the hot springs for commercial interests. The conservationists prevailed when Prime MinisterJohn A. Macdonald set aside the hot springs as a small protected reserve, which was later expanded to includeLake Louise and other areas extending north to theColumbia Icefield.[8]
Archaeological evidence found at Vermilion Lakes indicates the first human activity in Banff to 10,300BP.[9] Prior to European contact, the area that is now Banff National Park was home to many Indigenous Peoples, including theStoney Nakoda,Ktunaxa,Tsuut'ina,Kainaiwa,Piikani,Siksika, andPlains Cree.[10][11] Indigenous Peoples utilized the area to hunt, fish, trade, travel, survey and practice culture.[10][11] Many areas within Banff National Park are still known by theirStoney Nakoda names such asLake Minnewanka and theWaputik Range.Cave and Basin served as an important cultural and spiritual site for the Stoney Nakoda.[11]
With conflicting claims over the discovery of hot springs in Banff, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald decided to set aside a small reserve of 26 square kilometres (10 sq mi) around the hot springs atCave and Basin as a public park known as theBanff Hot Springs Reserve in 1885. Under theRocky Mountains Park Act, enacted on June 23, 1887, the park was expanded to 674 km2 (260 sq mi)[12] and namedRocky Mountains Park. This was Canada's firstnational park, and the third established in North America, afterYellowstone andMackinac National Parks. The Canadian Pacific Railway built theBanff Springs Hotel andLake Louise Chalet to attract tourists and increase the number of rail passengers.[8]
TheStoney NakodaFirst Nation were removed from Banff National Park between the years 1890 and 1920. The park was designed to appeal to sportsmen, and tourists. The exclusionary policy met the goals of sports hunting, tourism, and game conservation, as well as of those attempting to "civilize" the First Nations of the area.[13]
Early on, Banff was popular with wealthy European and American tourists, the former of which arrived in Canada via trans-Atlanticluxury liner and continued westward on the railroad.[12] Some visitors participated in mountaineering activities, often hiring local guides. Guides Jim and Bill Brewster founded one of the first outfitters in Banff.[14] From 1906, theAlpine Club of Canada organized climbs, hikes and camps in the park.[15]
By 1911, Banff was accessible by automobile from Calgary.[15] Beginning in 1916, the Brewsters offered motorcoach tours of Banff.[14] In 1920, access to Lake Louise by road was available, and the Banff-Windermere Road opened in 1923 to connect Banff withBritish Columbia.[15]
In 1902, the park was expanded to cover 11,400 km2 (4,400 sq mi), encompassing areas around Lake Louise, and theBow,Red Deer,Kananaskis, andSpray rivers. Bowing to pressure from grazing andlogging interests, the size of the park was reduced in 1911 to 4,663 km2 (1,800 sq mi), eliminating many eastern foothills areas from the park. Park boundaries changed several more times up until 1930, when the area of Banff was fixed at 6,697 km2 (2,586 sq mi), with the passage of theNational Parks Act.[12] The act, which took effect May 30, 1930, also renamed the parkBanff National Park, named for theCanadian Pacific Railway station, which in turn was named after theBanffshire region in Scotland.[16] With the construction of a new east gate in 1933, Alberta transferred 0.84 km2 (0.32 sq mi) to the park. This, along with other minor changes in the park boundaries in 1949, set the area of the park at 6,641 km2 (2,564 sq mi).[15]
In 1877, theFirst Nations of the area signedTreaty 7, which gave Canada rights to explore the land for resources. At the beginning of the 20th century,coal wasmined nearLake Minnewanka in Banff. For a brief period, a mine operated at Anthracite but was shut down in 1904. TheBankhead mine, atCascade Mountain, was operated by the Canadian Pacific Railway from 1903 to 1922. In 1926, the town was dismantled, with many buildings moved to the town of Banff and elsewhere.[17]
DuringWorld War I, immigrants fromAustria-Hungary andGermany were sent to Banff to work ininternment camps.[18] The main camp was atCastle Mountain, and was moved toCave and Basin during winter.[18] Much early infrastructure and road construction was done by men of various Slavic origins although Ukrainians constituted a majority of those held in Banff.[19] Historical plaques and a statue erected by theUkrainian Canadian Civil Liberties Association commemorate those interned at Castle Mountain, and at Cave and Basin National Historic Site where an interpretive pavilion dealing with Canada's first national internment operations opened in September 2013.[20]
In 1931, theGovernment of Canada enacted theUnemployment and Farm Relief Act which providedpublic works projects in thenational parks during theGreat Depression.[21] In Banff, workers constructed a new bathhouse and pool atUpper Hot Springs, to supplement Cave and Basin.[19] Other projects involved road building in the park, tasks around the Banff townsite and construction of a highway connecting Banff andJasper.[19] In 1934, thePublic Works Construction Act was passed, providing continued funding for the public works projects. New projects included construction of a new registration facility at Banff's east gate and construction of an administrative building in Banff. By 1940, the Icefields Parkway reached the Columbia Icefield area of Banff and connected Banff and Jasper.[22] Most of the infrastructure present in the national park dates from public work projects enacted during the Great Depression.[21]
Winter tourism in Banff began in February 1917, with the first Banff Winter Carnival. It was marketed to a regional middle class audience, and became the centerpiece of local boosters aiming to attract visitors, which were a low priority for the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR).[24] The carnival featured a large ice palace, which in 1917 was built by World War I internees. Carnival events includedcross-country skiing,ski jumping,curling,snowshoe, andskijoring.[25] In the 1930s, the firstdownhill ski resort,Sunshine Village, was developed by the Brewsters.Mount Norquay ski area was also developed during the 1930s, with the firstchair lift installed there in 1948.[12]
Since 1968, when the Banff Springs Hotel was winterized, Banff has been a year-round destination.[26] In the 1950s, the Trans-Canada Highway was constructed, providing another transportation corridor through the Bow Valley, making the park more accessible.[15]
Canada launched several bids to host theWinter Olympics in Banff, with the first bid for the1964 Winter Olympics, which were eventually awarded toInnsbruck,Austria. Canada narrowly lost a second bid, for the1968 Winter Olympics, which were awarded toGrenoble, France. Once again, Banff launched a bid to host the1972 Winter Olympics, with plans to hold the Olympics at Lake Louise. The 1972 bid was controversial, as environmental lobby groups strongly opposed the bid, which had sponsorship fromImperial Oil.[12] Bowing to pressure,Jean Chrétien, then the Minister of Environment, the government department responsible for Parks Canada, withdrew support for the bid, which was eventually lost toSapporo, Japan.[12] When nearbyCalgary hosted the1988 Winter Olympics, the cross-country ski events were held at theCanmore Nordic Centre Provincial Park atCanmore, Alberta, located just outside the eastern gates of Banff National Park on theTrans-Canada Highway.
Since the original Rocky Mountains Park Act, subsequent acts and policies placed greater emphasis on conservation. With public sentiment tending towards environmentalism,Parks Canada issued major new policy in 1979, which emphasized conservation. TheNational Parks Act was amended in 1988, which made preservingecological integrity the first priority in all park management decisions. The act also required each park to produce a management plan, with greater public participation.[12]
During the 1980s, Parks Canada moved to privatize many park services such as golf courses, and added user fees for use of other facilities and services to help deal with budget cuts. In 1990, thetown of Banff wasincorporated, giving local residents more say regarding any proposed developments.[28]
In the 1990s, development plans for the park, including expansion at Sunshine Village, were under fire with lawsuits filed byCanadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS).[12] In the mid-1990s, the Banff-Bow Valley Study was initiated to find ways to better address environmental concerns, and issues relating to development in the park.[29]
Banff National Park is in the Rocky Mountains on Alberta's western border with British Columbia in theAlberta Mountain forests ecoregion. By road, the town of Banff is 128 kilometres (80 mi) west of Calgary and 401 km (249 mi) southwest ofEdmonton.[30] Jasper National Park borders Banff National Park to the north, whileYoho National Park is to the west andKootenay National Park is to the south.[31]Kananaskis Country, which includesBow Valley Wildland Provincial Park,Spray Valley Provincial Park, andPeter Lougheed Provincial Park, is located to the south and east of Banff.TheTrans-Canada Highway passes through Banff National Park, from the eastern boundary nearCanmore, through the towns of Banff andLake Louise, and into Yoho National Park in British Columbia.[30] The Banff townsite is the main commercial centre in the national park. The village of Lake Louise is at the junction of the Trans-Canada Highway and the Icefields Parkway, which extends north to the Jasper townsite.[30]
Banff, established in 1885, is the main commercial centre in Banff National Park, as well as a centre for cultural activities.[31] Banff is home to several cultural institutions, including theBanff Centre, theWhyte Museum, theBuffalo Nations Luxton Museum,Cave and Basin National Historic Site, and severalart galleries. Throughout its history, Banff has hosted many annual events, including Banff Indian Days which began in 1889, and the Banff Winter Carnival. Since 1976, The Banff Centre has organized theBanff Mountain Film Festival. In 1990, Banff incorporated as atown of Alberta, though still subject to theNational Parks Act and federal authority in regards to planning and development.[32] In its2014 census, the town of Banff had a permanent population of 8,421 as well as 965 non-permanent residents for a total population of 9,386.[33] The Bow River flows through the town of Banff, with theBow Falls on the outskirts of town.
Lake Louise, a hamlet 54 km (34 mi) northwest of the town of Banff, is home to the landmarkChateau Lake Louise at the edge of Lake Louise. Located 15 km (9.3 mi) from Lake Louise,Moraine Lake provides a scenic vista of theValley of the Ten Peaks. This scene is on the back of theCanadian $20 bill in the 1969–1979 ("Scenes of Canada") series.[34] TheLake Louise Mountain Resort is also near the village. Lake Louise is one of the most visited lakes in the world and is framed to the southwest by theMount Victoria Glacier.[35]
The Icefields Parkway is a 230-kilometre-long (140 mi)[36] road connecting Lake Louise to Jasper, Alberta. The Parkway originates at Lake Louise, and extends north up the Bow Valley, pastHector Lake, which is the largest natural lake in the park.[35] Other scenic lakes near the parkway includeBow Lake, andPeyto Lakes, both north of Hector Lake. The Parkway then crossesBow Summit (2,088 m (6,850 ft)), and follows theMistaya River toSaskatchewan Crossing, where it converges with theHowse andNorth Saskatchewan River. Bow Summit is the highest elevation crossed by a public road in Canada.[35]
North of Saskatchewan Crossing, the Icefields Parkway follows the North Saskatchewan River up to theColumbia Icefield. The Parkway crosses into Jasper National Park atSunwapta Pass at 2,035 metres (6,677 ft) in elevation,[37] and continues on from there to the Jasper townsite.
TheCanadian Rockies consist of several northwest–southeast trending ranges.[38][39] Two main mountain ranges are within the park, each consisting of numerous subranges. The western border of the park follows the crest of theMain Ranges (also known as thePark Ranges), which is also thecontinental divide. The Main Ranges in Banff National Park include from north to south, theWaputik,Bow andBlue Ranges. The high peaks west of Lake Louise are part of the Bow Range. The eastern border of the park includes all of theFront Ranges consisting of from north to south, thePalliser,Sawback andSundance Ranges.[40] The Banff townsite is in the Front Ranges. Just outside the park to the east lie the foothills that extend from Canmore at the eastern entrance of the park eastward into the Great Plains. Well west of the park, theWestern Ranges of the Rockies pass through Yoho and Kootenay National Parks.[39] Though the tallest peak entirely within the park isMount Forbes at 3,612 metres (11,850 ft),Mount Assiniboine on the Banff-Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park border is slightly higher at 3,618 m (11,870 ft).[41]
The Canadian Rockies are composed ofsedimentary rock, includingshale,sandstone,dolomite andlimestone.[38] The vast majority ofgeologic formations in Banff range in age fromPrecambrian to theJurassic periods (600–145 m.y.a.).[39] However, rocks as young as the lowerCretaceous (145–66 m.y.a.) can be found near the east entrance and on Cascade Mountain above the Banff townsite.[42] These sedimentary rocks formed at the bottom of shallow seas between 600 and 175 m.y.a. and were pushed east during theLaramide orogeny.[43]: 78 Mountain building in Banff National Park ended approximately 55 m.y.a.[43]
The Canadian Rockies may have risen up to 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) approximately 70 m.y.a.[44] Once mountain formation ceased, erosion carved the mountains into their present rugged shape.[43]: 80–81 The erosion was first due to water, then was greatly accelerated by theQuaternary glaciation 2.5 million years ago.Glacial landforms dominate Banff'sgeomorphology, with examples of all classic glacial forms, includingcirques,arêtes,hanging valleys,moraines, andU-shaped valleys. The pre-existing structure left over from mountain-building strongly guided glacial erosion: mountains in Banff include complex, irregular,anticlinal,synclinal, castellate, dogtooth, and sawback mountains.[45]
Many of the mountain ranges trend northwest to southeast, with sedimentary layering dipping down to the west at 40–60 degrees.[39] This leads todip slope landforms, with generally steeper east and north faces, andtrellis drainage, where rivers and old glacial valleys followed the weaker layers in the rocks as they were relatively easily weathered and eroded.[39][46]Classic examples are found at the Banff townsite proper:Mount Rundle is a classic dip slope mountain.[47]: 28 Just to the north of the Banff townsite,Castle Mountain is composed of numerousCambrian age rock formations. The uppermost section of the peak consists of relatively harder dolomite from the Eldon Formation. Below that lies the less dense shales of theStephen Formation and the lowest exposed cliffs are limestones of theCathedral Formation.[48][47]: 76 Dogtooth mountains, such asMount Louis, exhibit sharp, jagged slopes.[47]: 114 The Sawback Range, which consists of nearly vertical dipping sedimentary layers, has been eroded by crossgullies.[49] The erosion of these almost vertical layers of rock strata in the Sawback Range has resulted in formations that appear like the teeth on a saw blade.[50] Erosion and deposition of higher elevation rock layers has resulted inscree deposits at the lowest elevations of many of the mountains.
Banff National Park has numerous large glaciers and icefields, 100 of which can be observed from theIcefields Parkway.[51] Smallcirque glaciers are fairly common in the Main Ranges, in depressions on the side of many mountains. As with the majority of mountain glaciers around the world, the glaciers in Banffare retreating.[52] WhilePeyto Glacier is one of the longest continuously studied glaciers in the world, with research extending back to the 1970s, most of the glaciers of the Canadian Rockies have only been scientifically evaluated since the late 1990s.[52]Glaciologists are now researching the glaciers in the park more thoroughly, and have been analyzing the impact that reduced glacier ice may have on water supplies to streams and rivers.[52] Estimates are that 150 glaciers disappeared in the Canadian Rockies (areas both inside and outside Banff National Park) between 1920 and 1985. Another 150 glaciers disappeared between 1985 and 2005, indicating that the retreat and disappearance of glaciers is accelerating.[52] In Banff National Park alone, in 1985 there were 365 glaciers but by 2005, 29 glaciers had disappeared. The total glaciated area dropped from 625 to 500 square kilometres (241 to 193 sq mi) in that time period.[52]
The largest glaciated areas include theWaputik andWapta Icefields, which both lie on the Banff-Yoho National Park border. Wapta Icefield covers approximately 80 km2 (31 sq mi) in area.[53] Outlets of Wapta Icefield on the Banff side of the continental divide include Peyto,Bow, andVulture Glaciers. Bow Glacier retreated an estimated 1,100 m (3,600 ft) between the years 1850 and 1953,[53] and since that period, there has been further retreat which has left a newly formed lake at the terminalmoraine. Peyto Glacier has lost 70 percent of its volume since record keeping began and has retreated approximately 2,000 m (6,600 ft) since 1880; the glacier is at risk of disappearing entirely within the next 30 to 40 years.[52][54]
TheColumbia Icefield, at the northern end of Banff, straddles the Banff and Jasper National Park border and extends into British Columbia.Snow Dome, in the Columbia Icefield is a hydrological apex of North America, with water flowing via outlet glaciers to the Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic Oceans.[55]Saskatchewan Glacier, which is approximately 13 km (8 mi) in length and 30 km2 (12 sq mi) in area,[53] is the major outlet of the Columbia Icefield that flows into Banff National Park. Between the years 1893 and 1953, Saskatchewan Glacier had retreated a distance of 1,364 m (4,475 ft), with the rate of retreat between 1948 and 1953 averaging 55 m (180 ft) per year.[53] Overall, the glaciers of the Canadian Rockies lost 25 percent of their mass during the 20th century.[56]
Under theKöppen climate classification, the park has asubarctic climate (Dfc) with cold, snowy winters, and mild summers.[57] The climate is influenced by altitude with lower temperatures generally found at higher elevations.[58] Located on the eastern side of the Continental Divide, Banff National Park receives 454.0 mm (17.87 in) of precipitation annually.[59] This is considerably less than in Yoho National Park on the western side of the divide in British Columbia, where 884.2 mm (34.81 in) (1971-1990 normals[60]) is received atWapta Lake and approximately 1,282 mm (50.5 in) at Boulder Creek annually.[61] Being influenced by altitude, snowfall is also greater at higher elevations.[58] As such, 183.8 cm (72.4 in)[59] (1991–2020 normals) of snow falls on average each year in the Banff townsite, while 279.1 cm (109.9 in) (1981-2010 normals) falls in Lake Louise, which is at a higher altitude, 1,524 m (5,000 ft).[62]
During winter months, temperatures in Banff are moderated, compared to other areas of central and northern Alberta, due toChinook winds and other influences from British Columbia.[58] The mean low temperature during January is −13.5 °C (7.7 °F), and the mean high temperature is −3.5 °C (25.7 °F) for the town of Banff.[59] However, temperatures can drop below −20 °C (−4 °F) withwind chill values dropping below -30 for 3.5 days in an average year.[58][59] Weather conditions during summer months are warm, with high temperatures during July averaging 22.5 °C (72.5 °F), and daily low temperatures averaging 6.8 °C (44.2 °F), leading to a largediurnal range owing to the relative dryness of the air.[58][59]
Banff National Park spans threeecoregions, includingmontane,subalpine, andalpine. The subalpine ecoregion, which consists mainly of dense forest, comprises 53 percent of Banff's area. 27 percent of the park is located above thetree line, in the alpine ecoregion.[66] The tree line in Banff lies approximately at 2,300 m (7,500 ft),[46] with openmeadows at alpine regions and some areas covered by glaciers. A small portion (3 percent) of the park, at lower elevations, is in the montane ecoregion.[66]Lodgepole pine forests dominate the montane region of Banff, withEngelmann spruce,willow,aspen, occasionalDouglas-fir and a fewDouglas maple interspersed. Engelmann spruce are more common in the subalpine regions of Banff, with some areas of lodgepole pine, andsubalpine fir.[67] The montane areas in the Bow Valley, which tend to be the preferred habitat for wildlife, have been subjected to significant human development over the years.[29]
Mountain pine beetles have caused a number of large-scale infestations in Banff National Park, feeding on thephloem of mature lodgepole pines. Alberta's first known outbreak occurred in 1940, infecting 43 km2 (17 sq mi) of forest in Banff.[73] A second major outbreak occurred in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Banff and the surrounding Rocky Mountains region.
Banff National Park is the most visited Alberta tourist destination and one of the most visited national parks in North America, with more than three million tourists annually.[74] Tourism in Banff contributes an estimatedCA$6 billion annually to theeconomy.[29]
A park pass is required for stopping in the park, and permit checks are common during the summer months, especially at Lake Louise and the start of the Icefields Parkway. A permit is not required if travelling straight through the park without stopping. Approximately 5 million people pass through Banff annually on the Trans-Canada Highway without stopping.[6]
In 2009, Banff Lake Louise Tourism hoped the appearance of the "Crasher Squirrel" internet meme would stimulate interest in the park. The meme is based on a photograph of a Minnesotan couple visiting the park on the shore of Lake Minnewanka that was "crashed" by aColumbian ground squirrel; the photograph was published in major news sources around the world and the image of the squirrel was digitally manipulated into humorous photos.[75]
Mount Rundle and Sulphur Mountain as seen from the reeds along the shore of one of the Vermilion Lakes.
Banff National Park is managed byParks Canada, under theNational Parks Act which was passed in 1930. Over time, park management policies have increasingly emphasized environmental protection over development. In 1964, a policy statement was issued that reiterated ideals of conservation laid out in the 1930 act. With the controversial bid for the 1972 Winter Olympics, environmental groups became more influential, leading Parks Canada to withdraw its support for the bid. The 1979 Beaver Book was a major new policy, which emphasizedconservation. In 1988, theNational Parks Act was amended, making the maintenance of ecological integrity the top priority. The amendment also paved the way fornon-governmental organizations to challenge Parks Canada in court, for breaches in adhering to the act. In 1994, Parks Canada established revised "Guiding Principles and Operating Policies", which included a mandate for the Banff-Bow Valley Study to draft management recommendations.[12] As with other national parks, Banff is required to have a Park Management Plan. On aprovincial level, the park area and the included communities (other than the town of Banff which is an incorporated municipality) are administered byAlberta Municipal Affairs asImprovement District No. 9 (Banff).[76]
The park was originally considered as a recreational area for visitors offering multiple leisure activities – the original wildlife policy viewed wildlife in Banff only as game or pests up until the 1960s and 1970s. As ecological awareness increased, management procedures expanded with the inclusion of public participation in many management decisions. Simultaneously, the increase in human construction (such as new highways) on the natural landscape increased the frequency of human–animal conflicts. In 1988 wildlife began to be considered an integral part of the ecosystem.[77]
The park now has a number of wildlife management strategies that aim to conserve certain species.Parks Canada uses anecosystem based management approach that aims to preserve the ecology of the park while still providing for visitors. Management decisions are based on modern scientific ecological information as well astraditional knowledge.[78]
Elk are a very important species in Banff National Park, partly because they represent a source of food for declining wolves. However they also have harsh impacts on the environment. Large elk populations causevegetation degradation, human–animal conflicts and destabilization ofbiological interactions. In 1999, the implementation of the Banff National Park Elk Management Strategy byParks Canada and the Elk Advisory Committee aimed to monitor and control the population to decrease conflicts and aid ecological process recovery.
Elk handling facilities are areas of pens with loading and unloading ramps where water and food are provided to the elk. They were created to help reduce herd numbers by increasing wariness and encouraging migratory behaviour, deterring the elk from the town ofBanff. These measures allowed more predator–prey interactions thanks to the creation ofcorridors. They also increased elk migration, restored the willow and aspen communities and highlighted the primary role of wolves in elk population management.[78]
Bear-proof garbage can at Lake Louise
The state of grizzly bear populations in Banff is seen as a proxy for ecological integrity.[79] To keep bears away from humans, an electric fence was put up around the summer gondola and parking lot atLake Louise in 2001. Bear-proof garbage cans, which do not allow bears to access their contents, help to deter them from human sites. The fruit ofbuffaloberry bushes is eaten by bears, so the bushes have been removed in some areas where the risk of a bear–human encounter is high.
Aversive conditioning deters bears by modifying their behaviour. Deterrents such as noise makers andrubber bullets are used each time the bear performs an undesirable action. Advice is also given to people to avoid an eventualhabituation of bears to human presence. If this conditioning is continual the bear will be less likely to continue the undesirable behaviour (crossing into campsites and roads etc.).[78]
Southern mountain caribou management previously aimed to identify what was threatening caribou populations and find solutions to mitigate the threats, but the last caribou in the park was found dead in an avalanche in 2009.[80] There was concern over why more had not been done to save the caribou population. The primary reason for their decline is thought to have beenhabitat loss and alteredpredator–prey dynamics.[80] Park management began monitoring the last five caribou in the park in 2002 and taking actions such as reducing impacts of humans, conducting studies of the population, and investigating the possibility of translocating caribou to increase the Banff population.[81][82]
Gray wolf
In the mid-1980s gray wolves recolonized the Bow Valley in Banff National Park. They had been absent for 30 years due to systematic predator control hunting which began in 1850. Wolves filtered back to Banff and recolonized one zone of the Bow Valley in 1985 and another in 1991.[78][83] A high level of human use surrounding a third zone at Banff townsite has deterred the wolves from that area.[84] The wolves are important in controlling elk populations and improve the balance of the ecosystem. A routine park study to monitor the wolves in Banff has now grown into the Southern Rockies Canine Project – the largest wolf research project in North America.[85] The estimated wolf population in Banff National Park and the surrounding areas is now 60–70 animals.[78]
Plains bisons were reintroduced to Banff in 2017.[86] The park has an extensive system of grasslands in backcountry valleys that are perfect for the bison.[87] 16 bison were translocated from Elk Island National Park and initially placed under observation for a year in an enclosed pasture within a 1,200 square kilometres (460 sq mi) reintroduction site near Panther River Valley.[88][89] After 18 months of acclimation, the herd was released into the reintroduction site and as of August 2021, the herd had grown to 66.[90][91][92]
Wildlife crossings have been successful in Banff National Park at reducing the number of animals killed on the roads. There is also 82 kilometres (51 mi) of fencing at the edge of the highway in the park to prevent animals from getting onto the roads. Since it was put up, this has reduced collisions between wildlife and vehicles by over 80 per cent.[93]
Train tracks still pose challenges to conservationists. Many bears have been killed by trains, often because they are attracted to grain spills along the tracks.[94] Transportationcorridors provide openings for plants which are also utilized by bears.[78] A partnership betweenParks Canada andCanadian Pacific Railway allowed the creation of the first Railway-Bear Conflict Mitigation Symposium in 2010. Initiatives included building wooden pegboards to fence off the sides of tracks and chemically treating grains to deter the bears.[94] After a complete review of the research projects, the development of some of them has been authorized, including grain alteration and the use of cameras to study the behavioural response of bears to trains.[78]
In 2011, Parks Canada began to study the effectiveness ofelectro-mats, large mats that give a small electric shock to animals that step on them, as a potential deterrent around train tracks.[95] A trial instalment of the mats was placed in Banff to test their effectiveness in deterring animals like bears from gaining access to the fenced train tracks inside the park.[96]
General prohibitions implemented to ensure wildlife respect include the prohibition of feeding, touching, or holding animals in captivity, and the disturbance or destruction of bird nests.[78]
Since the 19th century, humans have impacted Banff's environment through introduction ofnon-native species, controls on other species, and development in theBow Valley, among other human activities. Bison once lived in the valleys of Banff and were hunted byindigenous people, but the last bison were killed off in 1850s. In 2017 a small herd of sixteen plains bison were reintroduced into an eastern section of the park.[97] Elk are not indigenous to Banff, and were introduced in 1917 with 57 elk brought in from Yellowstone National Park.[98] The introduction of elk to Banff, combined with controls oncoyote andwolves by Parks Canada beginning in the 1930s, has caused imbalance of the ecosystem.[98] Other species that have been displaced from the Bow Valley include grizzly bears, cougars, lynx, wolverine,otter, and moose. Beginning in 1985, gray wolves were recolonizing areas in the Bow Valley.[99] However, the wolf population has struggled, with 32 wolf deaths along the Trans-Canada Highway between 1987 and 2000, leaving only 31 wolves in the area.[100]
The Trans-Canada Highway, passing through Banff, has been problematic, posing hazards forwildlife due to vehicletraffic and as an impediment to wildlife migration. Grizzly bears are among the species impacted by the highway, which together with other developments in Banff, has causedfragmentation of the landscape. Grizzly bears prefer the montane habitat, which has been most impacted by development.Wildlife crossings, including a series ofunderpasses, and six wildlife overpasses, have been constructed at a number of points along the Trans-Canada Highway to help alleviate this problem.[103]
Parks Canada management practices, notablyfire suppression, since Banff National Park was established have impacted the park's ecosystem. Since 1983, Parks Canada has adopted a strategy that employedprescribed burns, which helps to mimic effects of natural fires.[104][105]
Banff National Park is bisected by two highways that cross the Alberta/British Columbia border while another provides a third access within Alberta. TheTrans-Canada Highway (Highway 1) bisects the park in an east–west direction, connecting it toVancouver to the west and Calgary to the east.Highway 93 bisects the park in a north–south direction, connecting it toCranbrook to the south and Jasper to the north. The portion ofHighway 93 north of Lake Louise is known as the Icefields Parkway whereas the portion southwest ofCastle Junction is known as theBanff-Windermere Parkway.Highway 11 (theDavid Thompson Highway) connects the Icefields Parkway atSaskatchewan River Crossing toRocky Mountain House to the northeast. Within the park,Highway 1A, also known as the Bow Valley Parkway, loosely parallels Highway 1 between Banff and Lake Louise.[106][107]
Other transportation facilities within Banff National Park include aCanadian Pacific rail line that generally parallels Highway 1 and an airport known as the Banff Park Compound Heliport.[108]
In 1978, expansion of Sunshine Village ski resort was approved, with added parking, hotel expansion, and development of Goat's Eye Mountain. Implementation of this development proposal was delayed through the 1980s, while environmental assessments were conducted. In 1989, Sunshine Village withdrew its development proposal, in light of government reservations, and submitted a revised proposal in 1992. This plan was approved by the government, pending environmental review. Subsequently, theCanadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS) filed a courtinjunction, which halted the development.[109] CPAWS also put pressure on UNESCO to revoke Banff's World Heritage Site status, over concerns that developments were harming the park's ecological health.[110]
While theNational Parks Act and the 1988 amendment emphasize ecological integrity, in practice Banff has suffered from inconsistent application of the policies.[29] In 1994, the Banff-Bow Valley Study was mandated bySheila Copps, the minister responsible for Parks Canada, to provide recommendations on how to better manage human use and development, and maintain ecological integrity.[111] While the two-year Banff-Bow Valley Study was underway, development projects were halted, including the expansion of Sunshine Village, and thetwinning of the Trans-Canada Highway between Castle Junction and Sunshine.
The panel issued over 500 recommendations, including limiting the growth of the Banff townsite, capping the town's population at 10,000, placing quotas for popular hiking trails, and curtailing development in the park.[29] Another recommendation was to fence off the townsite to reduce confrontations between people and elk.[112] The proposed fencing was also intended to reduce access to this refuge for elk from predators, such as wolves that tended to avoid the townsite. Upon release of the report, Copps immediately moved to accept the proposal to cap the town population. She also ordered a smallairstrip to be removed, along with a buffalo paddock, and cadet camp, that inhibited wildlife movement.[113]
In response to concerns and recommendations raised by the Banff-Bow Valley Study, a number of development plans were curtailed in the 1990s. Plans to add nine holes at the Banff Springs Golf Resort were withdrawn in 1996.[114]
With the cap on growth in the town of Banff, Canmore, located just outside the Banff boundary, has been growing rapidly to serve increasing demands of tourists. Major development proposals for Canmore have included the Three Sisters Golf Resorts, proposed in 1992, which has been the subject of contentious debate, with environmental groups arguing that the development would fragment importantwildlife corridors in the Bow Valley.[115]
^Luxton, Eleanor G. (2008).Banff : Canada's first national park: a history and a memory of Rocky Mountain Park (2nd ed.). Banff, Alta.: Summerthought Pub. p. 60.ISBN978-0-9782375-4-7.
^Fedje, Daryl W.; White, James M.; Wilson, Michael C.; Nelson, D. Erle; Vogel, John S.; Southon, John R. (1995). "Vermilion Lakes Site: Adaptations and Environments in the Canadian Rockies during the Latest Pleistocene and Early Holocene".American Antiquity.60 (1):81–108.doi:10.2307/282077.JSTOR282077.S2CID163803566.
^abBinnema, T.; Niemi, M. (October 1, 2006). "'Let the Line be Drawn Now': Wilderness, Conservation, and the Exclusion of Aboriginal People from Banff National Park in Canada".Environmental History.11 (4):724–750.doi:10.1093/envhis/11.4.724.ISSN1084-5453.
^abcdefghiHildebrandt, Walter. Historical Analysis of Parks Canada and Banff National Park, 1968–1995 (Report). Banff-Bow Valley Study.OCLC639616565.
^Binnema, Theodore; Niemi, Melanie (2006). "'Let the line be drawn now': Wilderness, Conservation, and the Exclusion of Aboriginal People from Banff National Park in Canada".Environmental History.11 (4):724–50.doi:10.1093/envhis/11.4.724.
^"Daily Data Report for June 2021".Canadian Climate Data. Environment and Climate Change Canada. October 31, 2011. RetrievedJuly 10, 2021.
^"Daily Data Report for July 2021".Canadian Climate Data. Environment and Climate Change Canada. October 31, 2011. RetrievedJuly 10, 2021.
^"Klimatafel von Banff, Alberta / Kanada"(PDF).Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. RetrievedDecember 2, 2024.
^Hebblewhite, Mark; Pletscher, Daniel H.; Paquet, Paul C. (2002). "Elk population dynamics in areas with and without predation by recolonizing wolves in Banff National Park, Alberta".Canadian Journal of Zoology.80 (5):789–799.Bibcode:2002CaJZ...80..789H.doi:10.1139/z02-058.
^White, C. A. & W. Fisher (2007). "Ecological restoration in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: developing and implementing the 1997 Banff National Park Management Plan".Mountain Area Research & Management: Integrated Approaches:217–244.
^Kinley, T (2009). "Caribou population augmentation feasibility assessment for Banff National Park".Sylvan Consulting, Invermere.
^Hebblewhite, Mark; Pletscher, Daniel H; Paquet, Paul C (2002). "Elk population dynamics in areas with and without predation by recolonizing wolves in Banff National Park, Alberta".Canadian Journal of Zoology.80 (5):789–799.Bibcode:2002CaJZ...80..789H.doi:10.1139/z02-058.
^Paquet, Paul C; Callahan, C (1996). Effects of linear developments on winter movements of gray wolves in the Bow River Valley of Banff National Park, Alberta (Report).
^Walker, Roberta (October 16, 2014)."The wolf man".Canadian Geographic. Archived fromthe original on April 16, 2016. RetrievedApril 1, 2016.
^Struzik, Ed (March 12, 2000). "Wolves losing mountain park turf to humans: Traffic congestion in Jasper and Banff gravely impacting park populations". Edmonton Journal. p. A6.
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