| Baima | |
|---|---|
| Pe | |
| 白马语 | |
| Pronunciation | /pe˥˧/ |
| Native to | China |
| Region | Sichuan andGansu |
| Ethnicity | 14,000Baima people (2007)[1] |
Native speakers | 10,000 (2007)[1] |
| Dialects |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | bqh |
| Glottolog | baim1244 |
| ELP | Baima |
 | |
 Baima is classified as Vulnerable by theUNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger. | |
| This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. | |
Baima (autonym:pe˥˧)[2] is a language spoken by 10,000Baima people,[3] ofTibetan ethnicity,[citation needed] in north-centralSichuan Province andGansu Province,China.[3] Baima is passed on from parents to children in Baima villages. It is spoken within the home domain and is not used in any media of mass communication.[3]
Baima usessubject–object–verb (SOV) word order, word-initial consonant clusters and istonal. It is unclassified within Sino-Tibetan; there are multiple layers of borrowings fromAmdo,Khams, andZhongu Tibetan, as well as lexical and grammatical connections withQiangic languages. Basic vocabulary is about 85% Tibetic and 15% Qiangic, and the Tibetic words do not link to any established group of Tibetic languages. Chirkova (2008) suggests that the Qiangic vocabulary "might be a retention from the language originally spoken by the Báimǎ before their shift to a form ofTibetic in the 7th century." She accepts Baima as Tibetan, but as an isolate within the Tibetic languages.[4]
Baima speakers number around 10,000 and have lived for generations in the mountainous region spanning the borders ofSichuan andGansu Provinces. After the establishment of thePeople's Republic of China in 1949, Baima speakers have requested to grant them recognition as an independent ethnic group on many occasions.[5] Historians believe that the Baima are descendants of the ancientDi people in China.[6] Chinese records from 551 AD mention that The Di are also called Baima. One historian states, "The Baima tribe was the largest tribe of the Di nationality, which lived in Gansu, Sichuan and Shaanxi during the Three Kingdoms Period (220–265 AD)."[citation needed] Tibetans invaded the Di territory in the 7th century and assimilated the local population, which probably subsequently shifted into a form of Tibetan spoken by the invaders.[7] Linguists consider Baima to be an independent language of the Tibetan branch but the language itself has been greatly influenced by Tibetan.[5] In addition, DNA specialists have discovered that the Baima are genetically closer to the Qiang people than to the Tibetans.[5]
There are distinctions within the Baima language itself. Baima is mainly divided into three dialect groups: Southern Baima (Pingwu Baima), Northern Baima (Wenxian Baima), Western Baima (Jiuzhaigou Baima, Songpan Baima).[8] The Baima spoken in Jiuzhaigou and surrounding areas differs from that spoken in Songpan County in the Aba Tibetan-Qiang Autonomous Prefecture and Wenxian County in Gansu Province.[5]
Sun Hongkai, et al. (2007)[2] document the following three dialects of Baima.
The classification of Baima has caused controversy among linguists. Baima is provisionally classified with theKhams group, although it also has a number ofAmdo characteristics.[4] Reasons for this are presumably the drastic simplification of the syllable structure, the elimination of ancient Tibetansyllables codas and the presence oftones.[4] While many scholars (Song Hongkai, Nishida Tatsuo, and Katia Chirkova) believe that Baima is a separateTibeto-Burman subgroup in its own right, others believe that it should be identified as a Tibetan dialect.[9] In fact, the differences between Baima and Tibetan far exceeded those existing between the three main Tibetan dialects spoken within Chinese territory.[5]
Although the Baima people have sought after their claims as an independent ethnic group since the 1960s, the Baima language remained classified as aTibetan dialect. As such, their ethnic minority rights are "hostile taken over" by the Tibetans and the Lhasa Tibetan language. As Chirkova noted, "Reclassification of ethnic groups listed as Tibetans remains a sensitive issue in thePRC, and is considered by many Tibetans as an attack on Tibetan identity by the Chinese government."[10] As a result, the Baima language remains poorly documented to this day and continues to raise the question of language in the role of cultural survival. The use of Baima is limited to religious ceremonies and intercommunication between Baima villages, which significantly furthered the endangerment of Baima language. Additionally, the language of communication with neighboring communities throughout all Baima-inhabited areas isSichuan Mandarin.[10]
According to theEndangered Languages Project, the Baima language is spoken in fourcounties:Jiuzhaigou County,Songpan County,Pingwu County, andWen County.[3]
Baima is spoken inWujiao [zh] in Jiuzhaigou County.[2]
Baima is spoken inBaima Tibetan Ethnic Township (Chinese:白马藏族乡) in Pingwu County.[11]
Within Wen County, Baima is spoken inTielou Tibetan Ethnic Township [zh],[3] andBaimaguhe (Chinese:白马谷河).[citation needed]
Overall, Baima vocabulary is highly heterogeneous. It consists predominantly of transparent Tibetan provenance and appears to combine features ofKhams andAmdo.[12] However, sound correspondences between the sound system of ancient Tibetan, as reflected in standard Written Tibetan orthography and Baima, are less regular than those between Written Tibetan orthography and established groups of Modern Tibetan dialects.[12] Baima vocabulary also exhibits two features that are not present in all other dialects: first, voicing of voiceless aspirated stops and affricates after nasal prefixes; and second, the treatment of written Tibetan orthography.[4] Furthermore, Baima has some words that are of unclear etymology, even in its basic vocabulary. The proportion of these words has never been estimated, nor has basic vocabulary ever been the topic of detailed investigation.[12] In Ekaterina Chirkova's article, "On the Position of Baima within Tibetan: A Look from Basic Vocabulary", she examined the 100-wordSwadesh list for Baima, as the layer of lexicon which is arguably least resistible to change and which therefore can shed light on the genetic affiliation of this language.[12] She then discovered that the 100-word Swadesh list for Báimǎ contains 84 words of Tibetan origin, 15 words of unclear origin and another 7 words with partial cognation, in which one element is of unidentified origin. Four words are doublets, most of which combine one word of unclear origin with a word of Tibetan origin.[12] According to her analysis, Baima has a simple syllable structure. All Baima syllables are open an have the (n)(C)V makeup, where "n" stands for prenasalization and is homorganic with the following consonant.[12] Most Baima verbs have two stems, the imperfective, marked by prenasalization and mostly the high falling tone, and the perfective/imperative, marked by the high rising tone.[12] Baima verbs havedirectional aspect, with different prefixes combining with verbs to represent progression of an action in a specific direction.[5] Using prefixes to show directional aspect is an important and unique feature in Baima language. In sum, Chirkova concluded that Baima diverge significantly in lexicon and phonology from the established groups of Tibetan dialects.[12]
| Labial | Alveolar | Postalveolar | (Alveolo-) | Velar | Glottal | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | sibilant | |||||||
| Nasal | voiced | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | |||
| Plosive/ | voiceless | p | t | ts | tʃ | tɕ | k | |
| aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | tsʰ | tʃʰ | tɕʰ | kʰ | ||
| voiced | b | d | dz | dʒ | dʑ | ɡ | ||
| pre-nasalised | ᵐb | ⁿd | ⁿdz | ⁿdʒ | ⁿdʑ | ᵑɡ | ||
| Fricative | voiceless | s | ʃ | ɕ | ||||
| aspirated | sʰ | ʃʰ | ɕʰ | |||||
| voiced | z | ʒ | ʑ | ɦ | ||||
| Approximant | l | j | ||||||
| Trill | r | |||||||
| Front | Central | Back | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | y | u | ||
| Close-mid | e | ø | ə | o | õ |
| Open-mid | ɛ | ɛ̃ | ɔ | ||
| Open | a | ɐ | ɑ | ɑ̃ | |
| iɑ, iɛ, io, iø, iɔ, yɛ uɑ, uɑ̃, ue, uɛ, uɔ | |||||
The phonology of Baima is very similar to that of theKhams Tibetan language. They have both retained a voiced–voiceless contrast and have 4–5 contrastive tones as opposed to Amdo dialect.[5]
Affricates: four sets of affricates exist in the Baima language. They are apical, retroflex, laminal and pre-laminal.[5][dubious –discuss]
Rhymes: Baima rhymes are very similar to the Khams Tibetan language but its vowel system is much more complex. Codas have essentially been lost and vowels show considerable differentiation, with the appearance of many backdiphthongs. In general, the number oftones in Baima is also similar to Khams Tibetan. But the correspondences between Baima tones, onsets, and rhymes with written Tibetan are not as clear as those between Khams Tibetan and written Tibetan.[5]
Sino-Tibetan branches | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| WesternHimalayas (Himachal, Uttarakhand,Nepal,Sikkim) |
|  | |||
| EasternHimalayas (Tibet,Bhutan,Arunachal) | |||||
| Myanmar and Indo- Burmese border |
| ||||
| East andSoutheast Asia |
| ||||
| Dubious (possible isolates,Arunachal) |
| ||||
| Proposed groupings | |||||
| Proto-languages | |||||
Italics indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches. | |||||