| Bahram II 𐭥𐭫𐭧𐭫𐭠𐭭 | |
|---|---|
| King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians | |
.jpg) Drachma of Bahram II | |
| Shahanshah of theSasanian Empire | |
| Reign | September 274 – 293 |
| Predecessor | Bahram I |
| Successor | Bahram III |
| Died | 293 |
| Consort | Shapurdukhtak |
| Issue | Bahram III |
| House | House of Sasan |
| Father | Bahram I |
| Religion | Zoroastrianism |
Bahram II (also spelledWahram II orWarahran II;Middle Persian:𐭥𐭫𐭧𐭫𐭠𐭭) was the fifthSasanianKing of Kings (shahanshah) ofIran, from 274 to 293. He was the son and successor ofBahram I (r. 271–274). Bahram II, while still in his teens, ascended the throne with the aid of the powerfulZoroastrian priestKartir, just like his father had done.
He was met with considerable challenges during his reign, facing a rebellion in the east led by his brother, theKushano-Sasanian dynastHormizd I Kushanshah, who also assumed the title of King of Kings and possibly laid claims to the Sasanian throne. Another rebellion, led by Bahram II's cousinHormizd of Sakastan inSakastan, also occurred around this period. InKhuzestan, a Zoroastrian factional revolt led by a high-priest (mowbed) occurred. TheRoman emperorCarus exploited the turbulent situation of Iran by launching a campaign into its holdings inMesopotamia in 283. Bahram II, who was in the east, was unable to mount an effective coordinated defense at the time, possibly losing his capital ofCtesiphon to the Roman emperor. However, Carus died soon afterwards, reportedly being struck by lightning. As a result, the Roman army withdrew, and Mesopotamia was reclaimed by the Sasanians. By the end of his reign, Bahram II had made peace with the Roman emperorDiocletian and put an end to the disturbances in Khuzestan and the east.
In theCaucasus, Bahram II strengthened Sasanian authority by securing theIberian throne forMirian III, an Iranian nobleman from theHouse of Mihran. Bahram II has been suggested by scholars to be the first Sasanian ruler to havecoins minted of his family. He also ordered the carving of several rock reliefs that unambiguously emphasize distinguished representations of his family and members of the high nobility. He was succeeded by his sonBahram III, who after only four months of reign, was overthrown byNarseh, a son of the second Sasanian ruler,Shapur I (r. 240–270).
Histheophoric name "Bahram" is theNew Persian form of theMiddle PersianWarahrān (also spelledWahrām), which is derived from theOld IranianVṛθragna.[1] TheAvestan equivalent wasVerethragna, the name of the old Iranian god of victory, whilst theParthian version was*Warθagn.[1] The name is transliterated inGreek asBaranes,[2] whilst theArmenian transliteration isVahagn/Vrām.[1] The name is attested inGeorgian asBaram[3] andLatin asVararanes.[4]
Bahram II was the eldest son ofBahram I (r. 271–274), the fourth king (shah) of the Sasanian dynasty, and the grandson of the prominent shahShapur I (r. 240–270).[5] The Sasanians had supplanted theParthianArsacid Empire as the sovereigns of Iran in 224, whenArdashir I (Bahram II's great-grandfather) defeated and killed its last monarchArtabanus IV (r. 213–224) at theBattle of Hormozdgan.[6] Aterminus post quem for Bahram II's birth isc. 262, since that is the date ofShapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht,[7] which mentions the rest of the royal family but not him.[8] His father, Bahram I, although the eldest son of Shapur I, was not considered a candidate for succession, probably due to his mother's lowly origin. She was either a minor queen or perhaps even aconcubine.[9][10] Shapur I died in 270, and was succeeded by his sonHormizd I, who only reigned for a year before he died. Bahram I, with the aid of the powerfulZoroastrian priestKartir, ascended the throne.[11] He then made a settlement with his brotherNarseh to give up his entitlement to the throne in return for the governorship of the important frontier province ofArmenia, which was constantly the source ofconflict between theRoman and Sasanian Empires.[9] Nevertheless, Narseh still most likely viewed Bahram I as a usurper.[11]
Bahram was briefly given the governorship of the southeastern provinces ofSakastan,Hind andTurgistan, which Narseh had previously governed.[12][13] Sakastan was far away from the imperial court inCtesiphon, and ever since its conquest the Sasanians had found it difficult to control.[14] As a result, the province had since its early days functioned as a form of vassal kingdom, ruled by princes from the Sasanian family, who held the title ofsakanshah ("King of the Saka").[14] Bahram I's reign lasted briefly, ending in September 274 with his death.[11] Bahram II, still in his teens,[12] succeeded him as shah; he was probably aided by Kartir to ascend the throne instead of Narseh.[5][15] This most likely frustrated Narseh, who held the title ofVazurg Šāh Arminān ("Great King of Armenia"), which was used by the heir to the throne.[16]
Bahram II's accession is mentioned in the narratives included in the history of the medieval Iranian historianal-Tabari;
"He is said to have been knowledgeable about the affairs [of government]. When he was crowned, the great men of state called down blessings on his head, just as they had done for his forefathers, and he returned to them greetings in a handsome manner and behaved in a praiseworthy fashion toward them. He was wont to say: If fortune furthers our designs, we receive this with thankfulness; if the reverse, we are content with our share."
Bahram II was met with considerable challenges during his reign. His brotherHormizd I Kushanshah, who governed the eastern portion of the empire (i.e., theKushano-Sasanian Kingdom), rebelled against him.[18][19] Hormizd I Kushanshah was the first Kushano-Sasanian ruler to mint coins with the inscription of "Hormizd, the Great Kushan King of Kings" instead of the traditional "Great Kushan King" title.[20] The Kushano-Sasanian king, now laying claims to the title of King of Kings, which had originally also been used by theKushan Empire, displays a "noteworthy transition" (Rezakhani) in Kushano-Sasanian ideology and self-perception and possibly a direct dispute with the ruling branch of the Sasanian family.[20] Hormizd I Kushanshah was supported in his efforts by the Sakastanis,Gilaks, and Kushans.[16] Another revolt also occurred in Sakastan, led by Bahram II's cousinHormizd of Sakastan, who has been suggested to be the same person as Hormizd I Kushanshah.[18] However, according to theIranologist Khodadad Rezakhani, this proposal must now be disregarded.[20] At the same time, a revolt led by a high-priest (mowbed) occurred in the province ofKhuzestan, which was seized by the latter for a period.[21]
Meanwhile, the Roman emperorCarus, hearing of the civil war occurring in the Sasanian Empire, chose to take advantage of the situation by making a campaign into the empire in 283.[18] He invadedMesopotamia while Bahram II was in the east, and even besieged the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon without much fighting.[11][22] The Sasanians, due to severe internal problems, were unable to mount an effective coordinated defense at the time; Carus and his army may have captured Ctesiphon.[23] However, Carus briefly died afterwards, reportedly being struck by lightning.[23] The Roman army as a result withdrew, and Mesopotamia was re-captured by the Sasanians.[11]
The following year, Bahram II made peace with the new Roman emperorDiocletian, who was faced with internal issues of his own.[11][22]In the same year, Bahram II secured theIberian throne forMirian III, an Iranian nobleman from theHouse of Mihran, one of theSeven Great Houses of Iran.[24] His motive was to strengthen Sasanian authority in theCaucasus and utilize the position of the Iberian capitalMtskheta as an entrance to the important passes through theCaucasus Mountains.[24] This was of such importance to Bahram II that he allegedly went in person to Mtskheta in order to secure Mirian III's position.[24] He also sent one of his grandees named Mirvanoz (also a Mihranid) to the country in order to act as the guardian of Mirian III, who was then aged seven.[25] After Mirian III's marriage with Abeshura (daughter of the previous Iberian rulerAspacures), 40,000 Sasanian "select mounted warriors/cavalry" were subsequently stationed in eastern Iberia,Caucasian Albania andGugark. In western Iberia, 7,000 Sasanian cavalrymen were sent to Mtskheta to safeguard Mirian III.[26]
By the time of Bahram II's death in 293, the revolts in the east had been suppressed, with his son and heirBahram III being appointed the governor of Sakastan, receiving the title ofsakanshah ("King of the Saka").[11][22] Following Bahram II's death, Bahram III, against his own will, was proclaimed shah inPars by a group of nobles led byWahnam and supported by Adurfarrobay, governor ofMeshan.[27] After four months of reigning, however, he was overthrown by Narseh, who had Wahnam executed.[9] The line of succession was thus shifted to Narseh, whose descendants continued to rule the empire until its fall in 651.[6]
Before Bahram II, the Sasanian shahs had been "lukewarm Zoroastrians."[15] He displayed a particular fondness to his name-deity by giving his son the name of Bahram, and by selecting the wings of the god's bird,Verethragna, as the central component of hiscrown.[11] Bahram II, like his father, received the influential Zoroastrian priest Kartir well. He saw him as his mentor, and handed out several honors to him, giving him the rank of grandee (wuzurgan), and appointing him as the supreme judge (dadwar) of the whole empire, which implies that thenceforth priests were given the office of judge.[11][28] Kartir was also appointed the steward of theAnahid fire-temple atIstakhr, which had originally been under the care of the Sasanian family.[11][16] The Sasanian kings thus lost much of their religious authority in the empire.[16] The clergy from now on served as judges all over the country, with court cases most likely being based on Zoroastrian jurisprudence, with the exception of when representatives of other religions had conflicts with each other.[16]
It is thus under Bahram II that Kartir unquestionably becomes a powerful figure in the empire; the latter claimed on his inscription at theKa'ba-ye Zartosht that he "struck down" the non-Zoroastrian minorities, such as theChristians,Jews,Mandaeans,Manichaeans, andBuddhists.[15] According to the modern historian Parvaneh Pourshariati: "it is not clear, however, to what extent Kartir's declarations reflect the actual implementation, or for that matter, success, of the measures he is supposed to have promoted."[29] Indeed, Jewish and Christian sources, for example, make no mention of persecutions during this period.[29][30]
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Starting with Bahram II, all the Sasanian shahs are portrayed with earrings on theircoins.[31] He is the first shah to have wings on his crown, which refers to the wings of the god's bird, Verethragna.[32] Like his predecessors (with the exception ofArdashir I and Shapur I, whose legends were slightly different), Bahram II's legend on his coinage was "the Mazda-worshiping, divine Bahram, King of Kings of Iran(ians) and non-Iran(ians), whose image/brilliance is from the gods."[33][34][a]
Several coin types were minted during Bahram II's reign; one type imitates him alone; another with him and a female figure; a third one with Bahram II and an unbearded youngster wearing a hightiara (known as aMedian bonnet); and a fourth one shows Bahram II with the female figure and the unbearded youngster all together.[11][35][36] The female figure is wearing different headdress on some of the coins, sometimes with a boar, griffin, horse or eagle.[37] The precise meaning of these variations is unclear.[37]
As the coins' legends contain no information regarding the status of these characters, it is difficult to analyze them.[36] The unbearded youngster is usually understood as being the crown prince Bahram III,[38][11] while the female figure is usually labelled as Bahram II's queen Shapurdukhtak, who was his cousin.[16][36][37] If the supposition is correct, this would make Bahram II the first (and last) shah to have coins minted of his family.[16] According to the IranologistTouraj Daryaee, "this is an interesting feature of Bahram II in that he was very much concerned to leave a portrait of his family which incidentally gives us information about the court and thePersian concept of the royal banquet (bazm)."[16] The modern historianJamsheed Choksy has attempted to establish that the female figure in reality illustrates the goddessAnahita,[b] whilst the unbearded youngster illustrates Verethragna.[37] The reverse shows the traditionalfire altar flanked by two attendants.[11]
%2c_struck_at_the_Balkh_mint.jpg)
Various rock reliefs were carved under Bahram II; one of them being atGuyom, 27 km northwest ofShiraz, where Bahram is portrayed standing alone.[11] An additional relief atSar Mashhad, south ofKazerun, portrays Bahram as a hunter: a dead lion reclines at his feet, and he thrusts his sword into a second lion as it attacks him.[11] His queen Shapurdukhtak is holding his right hand in a signal of safeguard, whilst Kartir and another figure, most likely a prince, are watching.[11] The scenery has been the subject of several symbolic and metaphorical meanings, thought it is most likely supposed to portray a simple royal display of braveness during a real-life hunt.[11] An inscription of Kartir is underneath the relief.[11] A third relief atSarab-e Bahram, close toNurabad, and 40 km north ofBishapur, portrays Bahram II facing, with Kartir and Papak, the governor of Iberia, to his left, and two other grandees to his right.[11]
A fourth relief, at Bishapur, portrays Bahram mounted on a horse, whilst facing an Iranian grandee who is escorting a group of six men resemblingArabs in their clothing, arriving with horses anddromedaries.[11] Apparently, it depicts the diplomatic mission from theHimyarite kingShammar Yahri'sh at the beginning of his reign.[41] A fifth relief, atNaqsh-e Rostam, portrays Bahram II standing whilst being surrounded by his family members and attendants; to his left are the sculptures of Shapurdukhtak, a prince, the crown prince Bahram III, Kartir, and Narseh.[11] To his right are the sculptures of Papak, and two other grandees.[11]
A sixth relief, portraying an equestrian combat, was carved directly below thetomb of theAchaemenid King of KingsDarius the Great (r. 522–486 BCE).[11] The relief has two panels. The top panel depicts Bahram II's war against Carus, which he claims as a victory. The lower panel depicts Bahram II's war with Hormizd I Kushanshah.[11][18] A seventh relief, at Tang-e (or Sarab-e) Qandil, depicts adivine investiture scene, with Bahram II receiving a flower from Anahita.[42] Bahram II also erected two rock reliefs inBarm-e Delak: the first depicts Bahram II giving a flower to Shapurdukhtak; the second depicts Bahram II making gesture of piety, whilst being offered adiadem by a courtier.[42]
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During the reign of Bahram II, art in Sasanian Iran flourished, notably in the portrayals of the shah and his courtiers.[11] He is the first and only shah to have a woman illustrated on his coins, apart from the 7th-century Sasanian queenBoran (r. 630–630, 631–632).[43] The modern historian Matthew P. Canepa calls Bahram II a relatively weak shah, whose shortscomings allowed Kartir to take over some of the royal privileges.[44] Military wise, however, Bahram II was more successful, putting an end to the disturbances in Khuzestan and the east, and repelling the Romans from Mesopotamia.[45][46] According to Daryaee and Rezakhani, Bahram II's reign "appears to be one of stability and increasing introspection for the Sasanian administration."[47]
{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Bahram II Died: 293 | ||
| Preceded by | King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran 274–293 | Succeeded by |
| International | |
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| People | |
