Baghdad[a] is the capital and largest city in Iraq. It is located on the banks of the Tigris in central Iraq. The city has an estimated population of 8 million and span across 673 square kilometres (260 sq mi) of area. It ranks among themost populous and largest cities in theMiddle East and theArab world and constitutes 22% of thecountry's population. Baghdad is a primary financial and commercial center in the region.
Founded in 762 AD byAl-Mansur, Baghdad was the capital of theAbbasid Caliphate and became its most notable development project. The city evolved into an intellectual and cultural center. This, in addition to housing several key academic institutions, including theHouse of Wisdom, as well as a multi-ethnic and multi-religious environment, garnered it a worldwide reputation as the "Center of Learning". For much of the Abbasid era, during theIslamic Golden Age, Baghdad was one of the largest cities in the world and rivaledChang'an, as the population peaked at more than one million. It was largelydestroyed at the hands of theMongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues, shift in power and multiple successive empires. Later, Baghdad served as theadministrative center ofOttoman Iraq,[3] exercising authority over the provinces ofBasra,Mosul, andShahrizor.[4] '
During First World War, Baghdad was made the capital of Mandatory Iraq. With the recognition of Iraq as anindependent monarchy in 1932, it gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center ofArab culture. During the Ba'ath Party rule, the city experienced a period of relative prosperity and growth. However, it facedsevere infrastructural damage due to theIraq War, which began with theinvasion of Iraq in 2003, resulting in asubstantial loss of cultural heritage and historical artifacts. During theinsurgency and renewedwar from 2013 to 2017, it had one of the highest rates ofterrorist attacks in the world. However, these attacks have gradually declined since the territorial defeat of theIslamic State militant group in Iraq in 2017, and are nowrare. Since the end of the war, numerous reconstruction projects have been underway to induce stability.
The name Baghdad is pre-Islamic, and its origin is disputed.[6] The site where the city of Baghdad developed has been populated for millennia. Archaeological evidence shows that the site of Baghdad was occupied by various peoples long before the Arab conquest ofMesopotamia in 637 CE, and several ancient empires had capitals located in the surrounding area.[7]
Arab authors, realizing the pre-Islamic origins of Baghdad's name, generally looked for its roots inMiddle Persian.[6] They suggested various meanings, the most common of which was "bestowed by God".[6][8] Modern scholars generally tend to favor this etymology,[6] which views the word as a Persian compound ofbagh () "god" anddād () "given".[9][10] InOld Persian the first element can be traced toboghu and is related toIndo-Iranianbhag andSlavicbog "god."[6][11] A similar term in Middle Persian is the nameMithradāt (Mehrdad inNew Persian), known in English by its borrowed Hellenistic formMithridates, meaning "Given byMithra" (dāt is the more archaic form ofdād, related to Sanskritdāt, Latindat and Englishdonor),[6] ultimately borrowed from PersianMehrdad. There are a number of other locations whose names are compounds of the Middle Persian wordbagh, includingBaghlan andBagram in Afghanistan,Baghshan in Iran itself,[12] andBaghdati inGeorgia, which likely share the same etymological Iranic origins.[13][14][15]
Other authors have suggested older origins for the name, in particular the nameBagdadu orHudadu that existed inOld Babylonian (spelled with a sign that can represent bothbag andhu), and theJewish Babylonian Aramaic name of a place calledBaghdatha (בגדתא).[6][16][17] Some scholars suggested Aramaic derivations.[6]
Another highly recommended view is that Baghdad is a reference to Bagh and Dad as in Dadan, Dedan, and Dad as in Hadad, Adad. Another view suggested by Christophe Wall-Romana, is that name of "Baghdad" is derived from "Akkad", as the cuneiform logogram for Akkad (𒀀𒂵𒉈𒆠) is pronounced "a-ga-dèKI" ("Agade") and its resemblance to "Baghdad" is compelling.[18][19] It is argued that, throughout all the various spellings of the city's name, whetherBaghdad [بغداد],Baghdadh [بغداذ],Baghdan [بغدان],Maghdad [مغداد],Maghdadh [مغداذ], orMaghdan [مغدان], the only phonetically definite segment of the name appears to beAghda [ىَغْدَا], which could be equated with the pronunciation of the name Agade.[19][20]
When the Abbasid caliphal-Mansur founded a completely new city for his capital, he chose the name "City of peace" (Arabic:مدینة السلام,romanized: Madīnat as-Salām), which now refers to theRound City of Baghdad proper. By the 11th century,Baghdad became almost the exclusive name for the world-renowned metropolis.
Christophe Wall-Romana has suggested that al-Mansur's choice to found his "new city" at Baghdad because of its strategic location was the same criteria which influencedSargon's choice to found the original city ofAkkad in the exact same location.[21][22]
After the fall of the Umayyads, the victorious Abbasids sought a new capital.[23][24] On 30 July 762, the Caliph Al-Mansur commissioned Baghdad's construction, guided by theIranian Barmakids. He believed Baghdad was ideal for ruling the Islamic Empire. Historianal-Tabari recorded a prophecy fromChristian monks about a leader namedMiklas building a great city in the area, and Al-Mansur, who was once called Miklas, saw this as a good omen. He expressed deep affection for the site, declaring it would be the home of his dynasty.[23][24][25][26]
The two designers who were hired byAl-Mansur to plan the city's design wereNaubakht, a Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city would be astrologically auspicious, andMashallah, a Jew fromKhorasan,Iran.[27][28][29] They determined the city's auspicious founding date under the sign ofLeo thelion, symbolizing strength and expansion.[30]
Baghdad's strategic location along the Tigris and its abundant water supply contributed to its rapid growth. It was divided into three judicial districts: Round City (Madinat al-Mansur), al-Karkh (al-Sharqiyya), and Askar al-Mahdi. To prevent disturbances, Al-Mansur moved markets to al-Karkh. Over time, Baghdad became a hub for merchants and craftsmen. Officials called "Muhtasib" monitored trade to prevent fraud.[31][32]
Baghdad surpassedCtesiphon, the former Sassanid capital, located 30 km southeast. The ruins of Ctesiphon remain inSalman Pak, whereSalman the Persian is believed to be buried.[33] Ctesiphon itself had replacedSeleucia, which had earlier succeededBabylon.[34][35] According to the travelerIbn Battuta, Baghdad was one of the largest cities,[36] not including the damage it has received. The residents are mostlyHanbalis.[37] Most residents were Hanbali Muslims. The city housedAbu Hanifa's grave, marked by a mosque and cell.[38] Its ruler,Abu Said Bahadur Khan, was aTatar who had embraced Islam.[39]
Baghdad was designed to symbolizeParadise as described in theQur'an.[40] It took four years (764–768) to build, with over 100,000 workers involved. Al-Mansur recruited engineers and artisans worldwide. Astrologers Naubakht Ahvazi and Mashallah advised starting construction under Leo, associated with fire, productivity, and expansion. Bricks for the city were 18 inches square, andAbu Hanifah supervised their production. A canal supplied water for drinking and construction. Marble was used extensively, including steps leading to the river.[41][42][30][43][44]
The city's layout consisted of two large semicircles, with a 2 km-wide circular core known as the "Round City." It had parks, gardens, villas, and promenades. Unlike European cities of the time, Baghdad had asanitation system,fountains, andpublic baths, with thousands ofhammams enhancing hygiene. The mosque and guard headquarters stood at the center, though some central space's function remains unknown. Baghdad's circular design reflected ancient Near Eastern urban planning, similar to the Sasanian city ofGur and older Mesopotamian cities like Mari.[43][45][46] WhileTell Chuera andTell al-Rawda also provide examples of this type of urban planning existing in Bronze AgeSyria.[47][48] This style of urban planning contrasted with AncientGreek andRoman urban planning, in which cities are designed as squares or rectangles with streets intersecting each other at right angles.
Baghdad was lively, with attractions like cabarets, chess halls, live plays, concerts, and acrobatics.[49] Storytelling flourished, with professional storytellers (al-Qaskhun) captivating crowds, inspiring the tales ofArabian Nights.[50] The city had four walls named after major destinations—Kufa,Basra,Khurasan, andSyria;their gates pointed in on these destinations.[51] The gates were 2.4 km apart, with massive iron doors requiring several men to operate.[52] The walls, up to 44 meters thick and 30 meters high, were reinforced with a second wall, towers, and a moat for added defense.[53] On street corners, storytellers engaged crowds with tales such as those later told in Arabian Nights.[46][54] The Golden Gate Palace, home of the caliph, stood at Baghdad's center with a grand 48-meter green dome. Only the caliph could approach its esplanade on horseback. Nearby were officer residences and a guardhouse. After CaliphAl-Amin's death in 813, the palace ceased to be the caliph's residence.
Although Arabic was used as the language of science, the scholarship involved not only Arabs, but alsoPersians,Syriacs,[58]Nestorians,Jews,Arab Christians,[59][60] and people from other ethnic and religious groups native to the region.[61][62][63][64] These are considered among the fundamental elements that contributed to the flourishing of scholarship in the Medieval Islamic world.[65][66][67] Baghdad was also a significant center of Islamic religious learning, withAl-Jahiz contributing to the formation ofMu'tazili theology, as well asAl-Tabari culminating in the scholarship on theQuranic exegesis.[55] Baghdad is likely to have been thelargest city in the world from shortly after its foundation until the 930s, when it tied withCórdoba.[68] Several estimates suggest that the city contained over a million inhabitants at its peak.[69] Many of theOne Thousand and One Nights tales, widely known as theArabian Nights, are set in Baghdad during this period. It would surpass even Constantinople in prosperity and size.[70]Among the notable features of Baghdad during this period were its exceptional libraries. Many of the Abbasid caliphs were patrons of learning and enjoyed collecting both ancient and contemporary literature. Although some of the princes of the previous Umayyad dynasty had begun to gather and translate Greek scientific literature, the Abbasids were the first to foster Greek learning on a large scale. Many of these libraries were private collections intended only for the use of the owners and their immediate friends, but the libraries of the caliphs and other officials soon took on a public or a semi-public character.[71]
Four great libraries were established in Baghdad during this period. The earliest was that of the famousAl-Ma'mun, who was caliph from 813 to 833. Another was established bySabur ibn Ardashir in 991 or 993 for the literary men and scholars who frequented his academy.[71] This second library was plundered and burned by the Seljuks only seventy years after it was established. This was a good example of the sort of library built up out of the needs and interests of a literary society.[71] The last two were examples ofmadrasa or theological college libraries. TheNezamiyeh was founded by the PersianNizam al-Mulk, who was vizier of two early Seljuk sultans.[71] It continued to operate even after the coming of the Mongols in 1258. TheMustansiriyya Madrasa, which owned an exceedingly rich library, was founded byAl-Mustansir, the second last Abbasid caliph, who died in 1242.[71] This would prove to be the last great library built by the caliphs of Baghdad.
By the 10th century, the city's population was between 1.2 million[72] and 2 million.[73] Baghdad's early meteoric growth eventually slowed due to troubles within theCaliphate, including relocations of the capital toSamarra (during 808–819 and 836–892), the loss of the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political domination by theIranianBuwayhids (945–1055) andSeljuk Turks (1055–1135). TheSeljuks were a clan of theOghuz Turks from Central Asia that converted to theSunni branch of Islam. In 1040, they destroyed theGhaznavids, taking over their land and in 1055,Tughril Beg, the leader of the Seljuks, took over Baghdad. The Seljuks expelled theBuyid dynasty of Shiites that had ruled for some time and took over power and control of Baghdad. They ruled asSultans in the name of the Abbasid caliphs (they saw themselves as being part of the Abbasid regime). Tughril Beg saw himself as the protector of the Abbasid Caliphs.[74]
Baghdad was captured in1394,1534,1623 and1638. The city has been sieged in812,865,946,1157,1258 and in 1393 and 1401, byTamerlane. In 1058, Baghdad was captured by theFatimids under the Turkish general Abu'l-Ḥārith Arslān al-Basasiri, an adherent of theIsmailis along with the 'Uqaylid Quraysh.[75] Not long before the arrival of the Saljuqs in Baghdad, al-Basasiri petitioned to the Fatimid Imam-Caliphal-Mustansir to support him in conquering Baghdad on the Ismaili Imam's behalf. It has recently come to light that the famed Fatimidda'i, al-Mu'ayyad al-Shirazi, had a direct role in supporting al-Basasiri and helped the general to succeed in takingMawṣil,Wāsit andKufa. Soon after,[76] by December 1058, a Shi'iadhān (call to prayer) was implemented in Baghdad and akhutbah (sermon) was delivered in the name of the Fatimid Imam-Caliph.[76] Despite his Shi'i inclinations, Al-Basasiri received support from Sunnis and Shi'is alike, for whom opposition to the Saljuq power was a common factor.[77]
On 10 February 1258, Baghdad was captured by theMongols led byHulegu, a grandson ofGenghis Khan (Chingiz Khan), during thesiege of Baghdad.[78] Many quarters were ruined by fire, siege, or looting. The Mongols massacred most of the city's inhabitants, including the caliphAl-Musta'sim, and destroyed large sections of the city. Thecanals anddykes forming the city'sirrigation system were also destroyed. During this time, in Baghdad, Christians and Shia were tolerated, while Sunnis were treated as enemies.[79] The sack of Baghdad put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate.[80] It has been argued that this marked an end to the Islamic Golden Age and served a blow from which Islamic civilization never fully recovered.[81]
At this point, Baghdad was ruled by theIlkhanate, a breakaway state of the Mongol Empire, ruling from Iran. In August 1393, Baghdad was occupied by the Central Asian Turkic conquerorTimur ("Tamerlane"),[82] by marching there in only eight days fromShiraz. SultanAhmad Jalayir fled to Syria, where the Mamluk SultanBarquq protected him and killed Timur's envoys. Timur left theSarbadar prince Khwaja Mas'ud to govern Baghdad, but hewas driven out whenAhmad Jalayir returned.
In 1401, Baghdad was again sacked, byTimur, aCentral Asian Turko-Mongol figure.[83] When his forces took Baghdad, he spared almost no one, and ordered that each of his soldiers bring back two severed human heads.[84] Baghdad became a provincial capital controlled by the MongolJalayirid (1400–1411), TurkicKara Koyunlu (1411–1469), TurkicAk Koyunlu (1469–1508), and the IranianSafavid (1508–1534) dynasties.
The Safavids took control of the city in 1509 under the leadership of Shah Ismail I. It remained under Safavid rule until the Ottomans seized it in 1535, but the Safavids regained control in 1624. A massacre occurred when the Shah's army entered the city. It remained under Safavid rule until 1639 when Sultan Murad IV recaptured it in 1638.
For a time, Baghdad had been the largest city in the Middle East.[90] The city saw relative revival in the latter part of the 18th century, underMamluk government.[90] Direct Ottoman rule was reimposed byAli Rıza Pasha in 1831.[90] From 1851 to 1852 and from 1861 to 1867, Baghdad was governed, under the Ottoman Empire byMehmed Namık Pasha.[90] TheNuttall Encyclopedia reports the 1907 population of Baghdad as 185,000.[90]
The city's municipality was established in 1868, and Ibrahim al-Daftari was appointed its first mayor.[91] The year 1869 is of great importance in the history of Baghdad in the Ottoman era, as it was the beginning of what can be considered a distinct era of the Ottoman eras, the foundations of which were laid by GovernorMidhat Pasha, who implemented a number of reform systems and laws that the state legislated during the era of reforms and reconstruction, which was called the Tanzimat era.[91] The overall importance of Baghdad to the Ottomans was that they made the headquarters of the Sixth Corps of the Ottoman Army in the city.[91]
By the 19th century, Baghdad emerged as a leading center for Jewish learning.[92] The city had Jewish population of over 6,000 and had numerous yeshivas.[92] The Jewish population has grown so rapidly that by 1884, there were 30,000 Jews in Baghdad and by 1900, around 50,000, comprising over a quarter of the city's total population.[92] Large-scale Jewish immigration from Kurdistan to Baghdad continued throughout this period.[92] By the mid-19th century, the religious infrastructure of Baghdad grew to include a large yeshiva which trained up to sixty rabbis at time.[92] Religious scholarship flourished in Baghdad, which produced great rabbis, such as Joseph Hayyim ben Eliahu Mazal-Tov, known as theBen Ish Chai (1834–1909) or RabbiAbdallah Somekh (1813–1889). During this time, Baghdadi Jews established a successful trade diaspora in China, India and Singapore.
Baghdad and southern Iraq remained under Ottoman rule until 1918, when they were captured by the British during World War I.[93] In 1920, a revolt erupted in Baghdad against new British policies.[94] It began in summer with mass demonstrations by Iraqis, including protests by embittered officers from the oldOttoman Army.[95] The revolt gained momentum and spread to the middle and lower Euphrates.[96] The British authorities retaliated by air bombing across Baghdad, which killed thousands of residents.[97] In 1921, under the Mandate of Mesopotamia, Baghdad became the capital of the British-protected monarchy. Baghdad was made capital of the independent kingdom of Iraq in 1932.
Several architectural and planning projects were commissioned to reinforce this administration.[98] During this period, the substantial Jewish community (probably exceeding 100,000 people) comprised between a quarter and a third of the city's population. TheNational Museum of Iraq and theUniversity of Baghdad were built by King Faisal, who laid foundation for the modern Iraqi state. The city's population grew from an estimated 145,000 in 1900 to 580,000 in 1950.[99] A development plan came in 1957, visioned byFrank Lloyd Wright.[99] The plan proposed to build a cultural hub on an island on the river, with an opera house, museums, a university, shopping malls, and a 300-foot statue of the fifth Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid.
On 1 April 1941, members of the "Golden Square" led by former ministerRashid Ali al-Gaylani stageda coup in Baghdad and installed a pro-German and pro-Italian government to replace the pro-British government ofRegentAbd al-Ilah.[100][101] The British forces intervened in the resultingAnglo-Iraqi War.[102] Fearing the advancement, Gaylani and his government had fled, and the mayor of Baghdad surrendered to the British and Commonwealth forces.[101][103] On 1–2 June, during the ensuingpower vacuum, Jewish residents were attacked following rumors they had aided the British.[104] In what became known as theFarhud, over 180 Jews were killed and 1,000 injured, 900 Jewish homes were destroyed, and hundreds of Jewish properties were ransacked.[104][105] Many Jewish girls were raped and children maimed in front of their families.[106] Between 300 and 400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence.[107] Between 1950 and 1951, Jews were targeted inseries of bombings.[108] According toAvi Shlaim,Israel was behind bombings.[108]
During the 1970s, Baghdad experienced a period of prosperity and growth because of a sharp increase in theprice of petroleum, Iraq's main export.[113] Newinfrastructure including oil pipelines, modern sewerage, and highways were built.[114] Master plans of the city (1967 and 1973) were delivered by the Polish planning office Miastoprojekt-Kraków, mediated by Polservice.[114]Saddam Hussein sponsored architectural and artwork events, that attracted world's popular architects.[115] The city had a vibrant lifestyle.[116] Baghdad was called as "Nuremberg of 1930s" and "Las Vegas of the 1980s".[116]
However, theIran–Iraq War of the 1980s was a difficult time for the city, as money was diverted to the military and thousands of residents endured devastations.[117] Iran launched a number of missiles and rockets on Baghdad, some of them hitting dangerously close toAl-Rashid Street and theJewish Quarter.[118][119][120] Power plants and oil refineries were damaged.[118] A nuclear reactor near Baghdad was destroyed in an airstrike by Israel.[121] Despite the war, preparations were underway for Baghdad to host a Non-Alignment Movement summit.[114] Conference centers and hotels such asPalestine Hotel,Al-Mansour Hotel andIshtar Hotel were built.[114] However, the summit was later shifted to New Delhi, due to deteriorating security.[122][123]
During theGulf War, Baghdad was the most heavily defended area of Iraq.[124][125] Initially, U.S. airstrikes on Baghdad failed and resulted a tactical victory for the Iraqi Air Force.[126][127] Later, the multionational forces preeceded with aerial bombings.[128] Air defense, communication systems, bridges, chemical weapon facilities, and artilleries were damaged.[129] Oil refineries and airport were targeted.[129] On 13 February 1991, anaerial bombing attack inAmiriya killed at least 408 civilians.[130][131] Shortly after the end of the war, ethnic Kurds and Shi'a Muslims led uprisings against the government.[123] Clashes took place Shi'a rebels and the Republican Guard led by Qusay Hussein.[132] Sadr City was besieged until the order restored.[133] Anotheruprising occurred in 1999, after AyatollahMuhammad Sadiq al-Sadr was assassinated inNajaf.[134] Unrest began as large scale protests took place in Shia neighborhoods of Baghdad, speciallySaddam City.[134] The Republican Guard deployed in the district suppressed the demonstration, leaving between 27 and 100 dead.[134]
Baghdad was targeted in frequent U.S. airstrikes.[135] On 26 June 1993, cruise missiles were launched into downtown Baghdad, targeting the intelligence headquarters in theMansour district.[136] The attack killed nine civilians nearby, including actress and painterLayla Al-Attar.[137] During the 1998 bombing of Iraq, missiles struck multiple locations across Baghdad, including presidential palaces, several Republican Guard barrakcs, and offices of the Ministry of Defense and the Military industry. On February 16, 2001, the U.S. launched air strikes on five military targets at Taji.[138][139]
The city was economically drained, as a result of the Gulf War and the subsequentembargo against Iraq.[140] By the end of the 1990s, the government made improvements and began rebuilding Baghdad.[141] Government offices, presidential palaces, bridges and roads damaged in the war and follow-up U.S. attacks were restored.[142] The city's airport was reopened, with flights from Lebanon, Syria and Jordan.[142] Numerous mosques were built as a part of the Faith Campaign. In 2001, a broad initiative came to restore Baghdad's cultural heritage.[143] Older mosques, churches,mandis and synagogues were restored and other historical structures were rebuilt.[144][145] Under Saddam's architectural vision, a large number of palaces were built around the city.[146] However, these efforts were interrupted by the war which began in 2003.[147][148][149]
In 2003, the United States-led coalition invaded Iraq.[150]Coalition forces launched massive aerial assaults.[150] The resistance of the Iraqi Army of the city's airport delayed coalition's entry into Baghdad.[151] Following thefall of Baghdad on 9 April 2003, the government lost its power.[150] Astatue of Saddam was toppled inFirdous Square, symbolizing the end of his rule.[150] Many of the former government officials were either killed or captured, while others managed to escape and flee.[152] After the overthrow the government, theCoalition Provisional Authority (CPA) was formed.[153]CPA's decisions caused apower vacuum.[153][154] Also two minor riots took place in 2003, on 21 July and 2 October, causing some disturbance in the population.[155][156] Shortly after the invasion and the fall of the regime, an insurgancy began against the U.S-led rule of Iraq, consisting of former government officers and Islamist groups.[157]Bombings took place atJordanian Embassy andCanal Hotel.[158] Religious and ethnic minorities,— Christians, Mandaeans, and Jews, began leaving the city out of fear of being targeted in attacks, as they were subjected to kidnappings, death threats, and violence.[158] The Iraqi Film Archives site was bombed, priceless collection of artifacts in theNational Museum was looted, and thousands of ancient manuscripts in theNational Library were destroyed.[158][159] TheHaifa Street helicopter incident on 12 September was controversial.[158] On the eve ofAshura on 2 March 2004, one of the deadliest bombing took place in Baghdad, that killed at least 80–100 and injured 200Shi'aMuslims.[158] In 2005, over 965 people were killed inAl-Aimmah Bridge nearAl-Kadhimiya Mosque.[160] Attempts were made to rescue people, specially from the Sunni district ofAdhamiyah, which is today seen as a symbol of unity.[160]
UnderOperation Imposing Law (Operation Fardh al-Qanoon), the coalition forces and post-2003 Iraqi Army successfully defeated Al-Qaeda and targeted Shia militias.[158] By 2009, the level of violence decreased.[158] However, violence continued.[158] The period surrounding Provincial Elections was remarkably peaceful.[158] But Baghdad witnessed an uptick in attacks in early April 2009, when a series of suicide bomb and vehicle-borne improvised explosive device attacks were perpetrated across the capital. [158] The war and subsequent occupation ended in 2011, that causedhuge damage to Baghdad's transportation, power, and sanitary infrastructure.[150] It resulted in massive civilian casualties, whose number is disputed.[158]
Though the war ended, but anIslamistinsurgency lasted until 2013.[161][162] Baghdad experienced anti-government protests by Sunnis during the Arab Spring. It was followed byanother war from 2013 to 2017 and alow-level insurgency from 2017, which includedsuicide bombings inJanuary 2018 andJanuary 2021.[163] It has been site of clashes between the citizens and the government. The city attracted global media attention on 3 January 2020, when Iranian generalQasem Soleimani wasassassinated in a U.S. drone strike near Baghdad Airport.[164] In December 2015, Baghdad was selected byUNESCO as the first Arab city of the center of literary creativity.[165]
The city is located on a vast plain bisected by theTigris river. The Tigris splits Baghdad in half, with the eastern half being called "Risafa" and the Western half known as "Karkh". The land on which the city is built is almost entirely flat and low-lying, being ofquaternaryalluvial origin due to periodic large flooding of the Tigris river. TheDiyala river is a tributary of the Tigris, flowing southeast of the city and bordering its eastern suburbs.
Baghdad is 529.8 kilometres (329.2 mi) northwest ofBasra, 402.9 kilometres (250.4 mi) south ofMosul, 366.8 kilometres (227.9 mi) south ofErbil and 103.8 kilometres (64.5 mi) northeast ofKarbala.[166] Located to the south isMahmoudiyah, which serves as the gateway to Baghdad.
Panoramic view of the Tigris as it flows through Baghdad
Climate
Baghdad has ahot desert climate (KöppenBWh), featuring extremely hot, prolonged, dry summers and mild to cool, slightly wet, short winters. In the summer, from June through August, the average maximum temperature is as high as 44 °C (111 °F) and accompanied by sunshine. Rainfall has been recorded on fewer than half a dozen occasions at this time of year and has never exceeded 1 mm (0.04 in).[167] Even at night, temperatures in summer are seldom below 24 °C (75 °F). Baghdad's record highest temperature of 51.8 °C (125.2 °F) was reached on 28 July 2020.[168][169]Humidity is under 50% in summer, due to Baghdad's distance from both the marshes in southern Iraq and the coasts of thePersian Gulf.Dust storms from the deserts to the west are a normal occurrence during the summer.
Its winter temperatures are those of ahot desert climate. From December through February, Baghdad has maximum temperatures averaging 16 to 19 °C (61 to 66 °F), with highs possible above 21 °C (70 °F). Lows below freezing occurstatistically a couple of times per year.[170]
Annual rainfall, almost entirely confined to the period from November through March, averages approximately 150 mm (5.91 in), but has been as high as 338 mm (13.31 in) and as low as 37 mm (1.46 in).[167] On 11 January 2008, light snow fell across Baghdad for the first time in 100 years.[171] Snowfall was again reported on 11 February 2020, with accumulations across the city.[172]
Government office in theGreen Zone, government precinct
Administratively,Baghdad Governorate is divided intodistricts which are further divided intosub-districts.[177] Municipally, the governorate is divided into 9 municipalities, which have responsibility for local issues.[177] Regional services, however, are coordinated and carried out by amayor who oversees the municipalities.[177] The governorate council is responsible for the governorate-wide policy.[177] These official subdivisions of the city served as administrative centers for the delivery of municipal services but until 2003 had no political function.[177] Beginning in April 2003, the U.S—controlledCoalition Provisional Authority (CPA) began the process of creating new functions for these.[177] The process initially focused on the election of neighborhood councils in official neighborhoods, elected by neighborhood caucuses.[177] The CPA convened a series of meetings in each neighborhood to explain local government, to describe the caucus election process and to encourage participants to spread the word and bring friends, relatives and neighbors to subsequent meetings.[177]
Each neighborhood process ultimately ended with a final meeting where candidates for the new neighborhood councils identified themselves and asked their neighbors to vote for them.[177] Once all 88 neighborhood councils were in place, each neighborhood council elected representatives from among their members to serve on one of the city's nine district councils.[177] The number of neighborhood representatives on a district council is based upon the neighborhood's population.[177] The next step was to have each of the nine district councils elect representatives from their membership to serve on the 37 member Baghdad City Council.[177] Later, the number of official neighborhoods were increased to 89.[177] This three tier system of local government connected the people of Baghdad to the central government through their representatives from the neighborhood, through the district, and up to the city council.[177] The same process was used to provide representative councils for the other communities in Baghdad Province outside of the city itself.[177] There, local councils were elected from 20 neighborhoods (Nahia) and these councils elected representatives from their members to serve on six district councils (Qada).[177]
As within the city, the district councils then elected representatives from among their members to serve on the 35 member Baghdad Regional Council. The first step in the establishment of the system of local government for Baghdad Province was the election of the Baghdad Provincial Council. As before, the representatives to the Provincial Council were elected by their peers from the lower councils in numbers proportional to the population of the districts they represent. The 41 member Provincial Council took office in February 2004 and served until national elections held in January 2005, when a new Provincial Council was elected. This system of 127 separate councils may seem overly cumbersome; however, Baghdad Province is home to approximately seven million people. At the lowest level, the neighborhood councils, each council represents an average of 75,000 people. The nine District Advisory Councils (DAC) are as follows:[177]
The nine districts are subdivided into 89 smaller neighborhoods which may make up sectors of any of the districts above. The following is aselection (rather than a complete list) of these neighborhoods:
Baghdad's population was estimated at 7.22 million in 2015. The surrounding metropolitan region's population is estimated to be 10,500,000.[5] It is second largest city in the Arab world afterCairo andfourth largest metropolitan area in the Middle East afterTehran.[5] At the beginning of the 21st century, some 1.5 million people migrated to Baghdad.[5] The2013–2017 civil war following theIslamic State's invasion in 2014 caused hundreds of thousands of Iraqi internally displaced people to flee to the city.[5]
The vast majority of Baghdad's ethnic population are IraqiArabs, while minority groups include Kurds,Feyli, Kurdish,Turkmen,Assyrians,Kawliya,Circassians,Mandaeans, andArmenians.[5][186][187] Post-2003 have left an impact of Baghdad's ethnic composition.[188] In 2003, approximately 500,000 Kurds lived in Baghdad.[188] As of 2016, around 300,000 remained in Baghdad.[188] Among them, about 150,000 are Shi'a mostly ofLuri origin.[189] The main Kurdish neighborhood is situated in central Baghdad, known as the Quarter of Kurds (Akd al–Akrad).[190] It is itself home to more than 200 Kurdish families that have lived for generations.[191][192]
Christians in Baghdad are predominantly ethnic Assyrians and Armenians.[193] Assyrians began moving to Baghdad by the mid 20th century from northern Iraq and Iran.[193][194][195] The historic "Assyrian Quarter" of the city –Dora, which boasted a population of 150,000Assyrians in 2003, made up over 3% of the capital's Assyrian population then.[196] The community has been subject tokidnappings,death threats, vandalism, andhouse burnings byal-Qaeda and otherinsurgent groups.[196] As of the end of 2014, only 1,500 Assyrians remained in Dora and others in Karrada district.[196] Before the war, 25,000 Armenians lived in Iraq, with majority them concentrated in Baghdad.[195] Although the Armenian population has reduced, Baghdad is still home to the largest community ofArmenians in Iraq, primarily concentrated in the Armenian quarter ofBab al-Sharqi area.[197]
The majority of the citizens are Muslims with minorities ofChristians,Yezidis,Jews andMandeans also present.[207] There are many religious centers distributed around the city including mosques, churches, synagogues and Mashkhannas cultic huts.[207] The city historically has a predominantlySunni population, but by the early 21st century around 52% of the city's population wereShi'ites.[5] Sunni Muslims make up 29–34% of Iraq's population and they are still a majority in west and north Iraq.[208] As early as 2003, about 20% of the population of the city was the result of mixed marriages between Shi'ites and Sunnis.[208][5] Following thecivil war between Sunni and Shia militia groups during theoccupation of Iraq, the population of Sunnis significantly decreased as they were pushed out of many neighborhoods.[5] Today majority of the neighborhoods are either entirely Sunni or Shi'ite. While few localities are mixed, such asYarmouk.
Baghdad was once home toone of the world's most significant Jewish communities.[216] In 1948, Jews numbered approximately 150,000, constituting 33% of the city's population.[217] Persecution forced most Jews to flee Iraq.[218] Even after 1948, up to 100,000 Jews remained, which decreased.[219] Majority of 15,000 Iraqi Jews lived in Baghdad during Saddam Hussein's rule and their population dwindled, not due to persecution but because of lifted travel restrictions that allowed many to emigrate.[218] By 2003, Iraq still had a Jewish community of about 1,500 people, majority of whom resided in Baghdad.[218] But the population decreased sharply after the war.[218] Today, an estimated 160 Jews live in Baghdad out of spotlight, primarily in the old Jewish quarters ofBataween andShorja, which was once home to vibrant Jewish community.[220][221] The city was historically home to over60 synagogues, cemeteries, and shrines, many of which were preserved before 2003.[220] However, their condition deteriorated after the war, and only a few sites, such as theMeir Taweig Synagogue andAl-Habibiyah Jewish Cemetery, remain today.[220][222]
Beyond their traditional homelands, aroundAmarah andBasra, Mandaeans are also found in Baghdad.[223] By the late 20th century, Mandaeans began settling in Baghdad for better opportunities.[223] Most of them live primarily around al-Qadisiyah and Dora, which is location to their place of worship and cultural centers.[223] However, persecution of Mandaeans have been greatly decreased since 2003.[223] There is also a small of community ofBaha'is andSikhs, who live in Baghdad.[224] The Sikhs are mostly Indians.[5] Before 2003, Baghdad was regularly visited by Sikh pilgrims from India.[5]
Baghdad serves as the commercial and financial hub, home to 22% of the population, and generating 40% of the Iraq's GDP.[225] It connects trade routes between Turkey, Syria, India, and Southeast Asia.[226] As the capital, it hosts government institutions and state enterprises, key sources of employment.[226] The public education system followsBa'athist socialist ideologies, for employment in the public sector.[227] Since 2003, the public sector has struggled to provide jobs, and the private sector hasn't grown sufficiently, leading companies to hire mainly foreigners.[227] To address this, NGOs are establishing incubation centers in the city.[228]
It was once one of the main destinations in the region with a wealth of cultural attractions.[230] Tourism has diminished due to wars, but in recent years the city has a revival in tourism although still facing challenges.[231] There are numerous historic, scientific and artistic museums in Baghdad.[232][233] Religious tourism in Baghdad has grown since 2003, with sites likeAl-Kadhimiya Mosque,Abu Hanifa Mosque,Mausoleum of Abdul-Qadir Gilani, andBuratha Mosque attracting visitors fromIran,Pakistan, andIndia, while non-religious tourists mainly come fromTurkey,France, and the United States.[234] Around 1 million people visit the city annually for religious purposes.[234] The pilgrims are both Shia and Sunni Muslims.[235]
The city contains the factories ofcarpets,leather andtextiles, workshops,cement andtobacco factories.[236] Industrial areas extend from the city center to outside and suburbs in the metropolitan area, such asTaji and northern Baghdad.[236] Subsequently, it has produced a wide variety of consumer and industrial goods, including processed foods and beverages, clothes, footwear, wood products, furniture, paper and printed material, bricks, chemicals, plastics, electrical equipment, and metal and nonmetallic products.[236]Bismayah, southeast of Baghdad, is home to world's largest precast factory.[229] In agricultural aspect, palm groves are spread in the city, and many of its people depends on the cultivation of many yields.[229]
Baghdad, like other provinces such asBabylon,Karbala andQadissiya, contains metals such asaluminum,ceramics,nickel,manganese andchromium, whose size is not yet known, being recently discovered by local Iraqi cadres lacking experience and mechanisms to determine the size of these explorations.[229] Anoilfield is located in eastern Baghdad.[237] It was believed that the quantities of oil is modest, but the drilling disclosed that its size exceeds the initial estimates, and has northern extensions in the province ofSalah al-Din, and southern province ofWasit.[237] The city is also home to Dora Refinery, a large oil refinery inDora, which is the 3rd largest in Iraq in terms of production.[229] The production of it exceeds 200,000 barrels (32,000 m3) per day, while its total production estimated if it was developed up to 120,000 barrels (19,000 m3) per day.[229]
Mostreconstruction efforts have been devoted to the restoration and repair of badly damaged urban infrastructure.[238] Some of the private projects includesBaghdad Renaissance Plan,Sindbad Hotel Complex and Conference Center, andCentral Bank of Iraq Tower. Other project proposed includes Romantic Island and Baghdad Gate.[239][240] Numerous projects have been also impacted due to corruption.[241] According to a report published byCNBC, there are around 150 entertainment projects planned for the city.[242] Many of them were delayed due to government policies.[242] Also Baghdad has witnessed the opening of dozens of tourist complexes annually with areas reaching 20,000 square metres (4.9 acres) in addition to some major tourism projects with areas exceeding 50,000 square metres (12 acres) with the aim of investment combining trade and tourism as a distinctive economic model.[242] In recent years, Baghdad has also adopted modern economic trends like, establishment of startup hubs, office space and incubation center, as well as development of shopping malls suchBaghdad Mall and Dijlah Village.[228]
Transportation
Highway in Baghdad - 2024
Baghdad lacks substantial public transportation, andtaxis are the primary means of transportation in the city. Roads in Baghdad are noted to be especially congested and this began since 2003.[243] According to MP Jassim Al-Bukhati in 2021, "Baghdad's roads are designed to accommodate 700,000 cars, while now there are between 2.5 and 3 million cars on them".[244] It is because since 2003, import of car has increased.[244] Since then water transport from river have become a popular mode of transport. Use of boats crossing across the river saves time for travelers to escape congestion.[245] Private organizations are working to improve transport system.[246][247]Among the major bridges connectingKarkh andRusafa are14th of July Bridge,Al-Aimmah Bridge andAl-Sarafiya Bridge.[248] In 2023, the authorities announced to build 19 bridges in Baghdad.[248] It is a part of its post-war reconstruction efforts, as many bridges were damaged during the war.[248] Streets, avenues and alleys plays an important role in creating network of transport.[249]Al-Sa'doun Street stretches fromLiberation Square to Masbah.[249] Abu Nuwas Street runs along the Tigris from the Jumhouriya Bridge to 14 July Suspended Bridge.[249]Damascus Street goes fromDamascus Square to theBaghdad Airport Road.[249]Hilla Road runs from the north into Baghdad viaYarmouk.[249]Mutanabbi Street is a street with numerous bookshops, named after the 10th century Iraqi poetAl-Mutanabbi.[249]Caliphs Street is the site of historical mosques and churches.[249]
Air transport
Iraqi Airways, the national airline of Iraq, operates out ofBaghdad International Airport in Baghdad.[250] The airport was opened by Saddam Hussein in 1982 as Saddam International Airport.[250] It was closed as result of the Gulf War and subsequent embargo.[251] The airport was reopened in August 2000.[251] The airport adopted its current name after the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[251]
TheBaghdad Metro project was first proposed during the 1970s but did not come to fruition due to wars and sanctions. After the Iraq war, Iraqi authorities intended to revive the project, but it was again delayed due to domestic instability.[252] In 2019, it was reported that KoreanHyundai and FrenchAlstom would be building the metro.[253] However, the planned construction did not happen.
As of February 2024, the current plan consisted of fully electric and automated (driverless) trains running on an extensive railway network including an underground railway portion as well as an elevated railway. The proposed Baghdad Metro system includes seven main lines with a total length of more than 148 kilometres, 64 metro stations, four workshops and depots for trains, several operations control centers (OCC) and seven main power stations (MPS) with a capacity of 250 mega-watts, and several Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) towers. The metro will be equipped with CCTV and internet as well as USB ports for charging. Special compartments will be allocated for women and children as well as seats for people with special needs, pregnant women, and the elderly. The metro stations will be connected to other public transport networks such as buses and taxis, and 10 parking spaces will be available for commuters. The planned operating speed will be 80–140 km/hour with an estimated 3.25 million riders per day.[254]
In July 2024, it was announced that an international consortium of German French, Spanish, and Turkish companies was awarded $17.5 billion contract to construct Baghdad's metro.[255] The consortium includes Alstom,Systra,SNCF,Talgo,Deutsche Bank andSENER. The consortium was then to negotiate the technical, financial and operational details of the project which is now estimated to be completed in May 2029.[256]
Cityscape
The Round City was the core of the city, during the establishment of Baghdad. It ceased to exist, as a result of the Mongolian siege. Urban features such as streets, avenues, alleyways and squares clusters a large number of landmarks, which itself creates an identity of cultural or intellectual hubs and define the beauty of Baghdad.
Al-Rasheed Street is one of the most significant landmarks in Baghdad. Located in al-Rusafa area, the street was an artistic, intellectual and cultural center for many Baghdadis. It also included many prominent theaters and nightclubs such as the Crescent Theatre where Egyptian SingerUmm Kulthum sang during her visit in 1932 as well as the Chakmakji Company that recorded the music of various Arab singers.[257] The street also contains famous and well-known landmarks including the ancientHaydar-Khana Mosque as well as numerous well-known cafés such asal-Zahawi Café and theBrazilian Café.[258][259]
Mutanabbi Street is located near the old quarter of Baghdad; at Al-Rasheed Street. It is the historic center of Baghdadi book-selling, a street filled with bookstores and outdoor book stalls. It was named after the 10th-century classical Iraqi poetAl-Mutanabbi.[260] This street is well established for bookselling and has often been referred to as the heart and soul of the Baghdad literacy and intellectual community.[260]Firdos Square is a public open space in Baghdad and the location of two of the best-known hotels, the Palestine Hotel and the Sheraton Ishtar, which are both also the tallest buildings in Baghdad.[261] The square was the site of the statue of Saddam Hussein that was pulled down by the coalition forces in a widely televised event during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
Qushla or Qishla is a public square and the historical complex located inal-Rusafa neighborhood at the riverbank ofTigris.[262] The place and its surroundings is where the historical features and cultural capitals of Baghdad are concentrated, from theMutanabbi Street, Abbasid-era palace and bridges, Ottoman-era mosques to theMustansariyah Madrasa.[262] The square developed during the Ottoman era as a military barracks.[262] Today, it is a place where the citizens of Baghdad find leisure such as reading poetry in gazebos.[262] It is characterized by the iconic clock tower which was donated byGeorge V.[262] The entire area is submitted to theUNESCOWorld Heritage SiteTentative list.[263]
Architecture
During the 1970s and 1980s,Saddam Hussein's government spent a lot of money on new monuments, mosques, palaces and hotels.[264] The Street is also notable for its architecture and aesthetic which was inspired byRenaissance architecture and also includes the famous Iraqishanasheel.[265]
TheNational Museum of Iraq whose collection of artifacts was looted during the invasion, and the iconicHands of Victory arches.[266] Multiple political parties are in discussions as to whether the arches should remain as historical monuments or be dismantled.[266] Thousands of ancient manuscripts in theNational Library were destroyed underSaddam's command.[266]
Grand Festivities Square is the main square where public celebrations are held and is also the home to three important monuments commemorating Iraqi's fallen soldiers and victories in war; namely Al-Shaheed Monument, theVictory Arch and theUnknown Soldier's Monument.[267]Al-Shaheed Monument, also known as the Martyr's Memorial, is a monument dedicated to the Iraqi soldiers who died in theIran–Iraq War.[267] However, now it is generally considered by Iraqis to be for all of the martyrs of Iraq, especially those allied with Iran and Syria fighting ISIS, not just of the Iran–Iraq War.[267] The monument was opened in 1983, and was designed by the Iraqi architect Saman Kamal and the Iraqi sculptor and artistIsmail Fatah Al Turk.[267] Though these works symbolize the ruling entity.[113] Neverthelsess, they have remained part of architectural legacy, which beautified Baghdad.[113]
The historic Jewish quarters ofBataween andShorja is home to numerous sites that are associated with Jews.[272] These sites were preserved during the Ba'athist regime.[273] However, after 2003, many of them are in poor conditions.[273]Meir Taweig Synagogue is the only active synagogue of Iraq, which have a large compound, that consist of community center, Jewish school and library.[273]Daniel Market (Souq Danial), which was named afterMenahem Saleh Daniel, still bears the same name. It is popular for fabrics and shoes.[273] TheGreat Synagogue of Baghdad, the oldest synagogue of Iraq, is now restored as a museum.[273]Al-Habibiyah Cemetery is the largest Jewish cemetery in Baghdad, home to around 1,000 graves.[273] The Tomb of Joshua, now a Muslim shrine, is believed to be the burial site ofJoshua.[273] Shaykh Yitzhak Tomb and Synagogue was preserved until 2003. Today it is neglected. Other sites includes House ofSassoon Eskell and library ofMir Basri.[273]
TheSabian–Mandaean Mandi of Baghdad is a Mandaen temple in al-Qadisiyyah.[274] It is the main community center for Mandaeans in Iraq.[274] Plans are underway to demolish and build a larger one to accommodate more worshippers.[274] A cultural institute for Mandeans is also in Baghdad.[275] The city is home toBaba Nanak Shrine, a sacred site in Sikhism.[5] It was destroyed during the Iraq War in 2003.[5] In theKadhimiya district of Baghdad, was the house ofBaháʼu'lláh, (Prophet Founder of theBaha'i Faith) also known as the "Most Great House" (Bayt-i-Aʻzam) and the "House of God", where Baháʼu'lláh mostly resided from 1853 to 1863. It is considered a holy place and aplace of pilgrimage by Baha'is according to their "Most Holy Book".[276] On 23 June 2013, the house was destroyed under unclear circumstances.[224]
Baghdad Zoo used to be the largestzoological park in theMiddle East. Within eight days following the 2003 invasion, however, only 35 of the 650 animals in the facility survived.[277] This was a result of theft of some animals for human food, and starvation of caged animals that had no food.[277] ConservationistLawrence Anthony and some of the zoo keepers cared for the animals and fed the carnivores with donkeys they had bought locally.[277][278] EventuallyPaul Bremer, Director of theCoalition Provisional Authority in Iraq after the invasion, ordered protection for the zoo and enlisted U.S. engineers to help reopen the facility.[277] Al-Zawraa Park is also part of the zoo, which is main urban park of the city.[277]
TheIraqi National Symphony Orchestra performing in July 2007The National Ballet performing in 2007The Baghdad Convention CenterAl-Ma'mun's Telecommunication Center in downtown Baghdad
Baghdad has always played a significant role in the broaderArab cultural sphere, contributing several significant writers, musicians and visual artists. Historically, the city had a vibrant modern culture and lifestyle.[116] FamousArab poets and singers such asNizar Qabbani,Umm Kulthum,Fairuz,Salah Al-Hamdani,Ilham al-Madfai and others have performed for the city. The dialect ofArabic spoken in Baghdad today differs from that of other large urban centers in Iraq, having features more characteristic of nomadic Arabic dialects (Versteegh,The Arabic Language). It is possible that this was caused by the repopulating of the city with rural residents after the multiple sackings of the lateMiddle Ages. For poetry written about Baghdad, seeReuven Snir (ed.),Baghdad: The City in Verse (Harvard, 2013).[282] Baghdad joined theUNESCO Creative Cities Network as a City of Literature in December 2015.[283]
Some of the important cultural institutions in the city include theNational Theater, which was looted during the2003 invasion of Iraq, but efforts are underway to restore the theater.[284] The live theater industry received a boost during the 1990s, when UNsanctions limited the import of foreign films. As many as 30 movie theaters were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range ofcomedies and dramatic productions.[285] Institutions offering cultural education in Baghdad includeThe Music and Ballet School of Baghdad and the Institute of Fine Arts Baghdad. TheIraqi National Symphony Orchestra is a government funded symphony orchestra in Baghdad. The INSO plays primarily classical European music, as well as original compositions based on Iraqi and Arab instruments and music. Mandaeans had cultural club in Al-Zawraa, where poetry evenings and cultural seminars were held, attended by poets, writers, artists, officials, and dignitaries of the communities.[286] There is also a social cultural center of Mandaeans at al-Qadisiyyah.[286]Baghdad Jewish Community Center is located inAl-Rashid Street.[287]
Baghdad is also home to a number of museums which housedartifacts and relics ofancient civilization; many of these were stolen, and the museums looted, during the widespread chaos immediately after United States forces entered the city.
Duringoccupation of Iraq,AFN Iraq ("Freedom Radio") broadcast news and entertainment within Baghdad, among other locations. There is also a private radio station called "Dijlah" (named after the Arabic word for the Tigris River) that was created in 2004 as Iraq's first independent talk radio station. Radio Dijlah offices, in theJamia neighborhood of Baghdad, have been attacked on several occasions.[288]
Baghdad is home to some of the most successfulfootball (soccer) teams in Iraq, the biggest beingAl-Shorta (Police),Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya (Air Force),Al-Zawraa, andAl-Talaba (Students). The largest stadium in Baghdad isAl-Shaab Stadium, which was opened in 1966. In recent years, the capital has seen the building of several football stadiums which are meant be opened in near future. The city has also had a strong tradition ofhorse racing ever sinceWorld War I, known to Baghdadis simply as 'Races'. There are reports of pressures by the Islamists to stop this tradition due to the associated gambling.[289]
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