Baalbek's history dates back at least 11,000 years. After Alexander the Great conquered the city in 334 BCE, he renamed itHeliopolis (Ἡλιούπολις,Greek for "Sun City"). The city flourished under Roman rule. However, it underwent transformations during theChristianization period and the subsequentrise of Islam following theArab conquest in the7th century. In later periods, the city was sacked by theMongols and faced a series of earthquakes, resulting in a decline in importance during theOttoman and modern periods.[9]
Baalbek is considered to be part ofHezbollah's heartland[13] and is known to be their political stronghold.[14] During theIsraeli occupation of Southern Lebanon (1982–2000), the group managed to overpower the Lebanese army in Baalbek and gain control of the city. The settlement was subsequently used as a base to recruit and train men for attacks against Israeli forces.[15][16][17] Hezbollah continues to hold significant political influence and popular support in Baalbek.[18][19] In the2022 Lebanese general election theAmal-Hezbollah list won 9 out of 10 seats in the Baalbek-Hermel Governorate.[20]
Israel has conducted numerous airstrikes and raids against military and civilian targets in the Baalbek area in the past decades. For instance, in 2006 during theOperation Sharp and Smooth, Israeli commandos raided a hospital and bombed multiple houses, killing two Hezbollah fighters and at least eleven civilians.[21][22][23] In 2024, during the Israel–Hezbollah conflict, Israel sentforced displacement calls for the entire city.[24][25] Shortly after, Israeli airstrikes killed 19 people, including 8 women.[26]
Etymology
A few kilometres from the swamp from which theLitani (the classical Leontes) and theAsi (the upperOrontes) flow, Baalbek may be the same as themanbaa al-nahrayn ("Source of the Two Rivers"), the abode ofEl in theUgariticBaal Cycle[27] discovered in the 1920s and a separate serpent incantation.[28][29]
The hilltop ofTell Baalbek, part of a valley to the east of the northernBeqaa Valley[49] (Latin:Coele-Syria),[50] shows signs of almost continual habitation over the last 8–9000 years.[51] It was well-watered both from a stream running from theRās al-ʿAynspring southwest of the citadel[52] and, during thespring, from numerous rills formed by meltwater from theAnti-Lebanons.[53]Macrobius later credited the site's foundation to a colony ofEgyptian orAssyrian priests.[53] The settlement's religious, commercial, and strategic importance was minor enough, however, that it is never mentioned in any knownAssyrian orEgyptian record,[54] unless under another name.[3] Its enviable position in a fertile valley, major watershed, and along the route fromTyre toPalmyra should have made it a wealthy and splendid site from an early age.[3][47] During theCanaanite period, the local temples were primarily devoted to theHeliopolitan Triad: a male god (Baʿal), his consort (Astarte), and their son (Adon).[55] The site of the presentTemple of Jupiter was probably the focus of earlier worship, as itsaltar was located at the hill's precise summit and the rest of the sanctuary raised to its level.[citation needed]
The emperorTrajan consulted the site'soracle twice. The first time, he requested a written reply to his sealed and unopened question; he was favorably impressed by the god's blank reply as his own paper had been empty.[78] He then inquired whether he would return alive from his wars againstParthia and received in reply acenturion'svine staff, broken to pieces.[79] In AD 193,Septimius Severus granted the cityius Italicum rights.[80][f] His wifeJulia Domna and sonCaracalla touredEgypt andSyria in AD 215; inscriptions in their honour at the site may date from that occasion; Julia was a Syrian native whose father had been anEmesan priest "of the sun" likeElagabalus.[76]
The town became a battleground upon therise of Christianity.[77][g] Early Christian writers such asEusebius (from nearbyCaesarea) repeatedly execrated the practices of the local pagans in their worship of the Heliopolitan Venus. In AD 297, the actorGelasinus converted in the middle of a scene mockingbaptism; his public profession of faith provoked the audience to drag him from the theater andstone him to death.[77][3] In the early 4th century, the deacon Cyril defaced many of theidols in Heliopolis; he was killed and (allegedly)cannibalised.[77] Around the same time,Constantine, though not yet a Christian, demolished the goddess' temple, raised a basilica in its place, and outlawed the locals' ancient custom of prostituting women before marriage.[77]Bar Hebraeus also credited him with ending the locals' continued practice ofpolygamy.[83] The enraged locals responded by raping and torturing Christian virgins.[77] They reacted violently again under the freedom permitted to them byJulian the Apostate.[3] The city was so noted for its hostility to the Christians thatAlexandrians were banished to it as a special punishment.[3] The Temple of Jupiter, already greatly damaged by earthquakes,[84] was demolished underTheodosius in 379 and replaced by another basilica (now lost), using stones scavenged from the pagan complex.[85] TheEaster Chronicle states he was also responsible for destroying all the lesser temples and shrines of the city.[86] Around the year 400,Rabbula, the futurebishop of Edessa, attempted to have himself martyred by disrupting the pagans of Baalbek but was only thrown down the temple stairs along with his companion.[85] It became the seat of its own bishop as well.[3] Under the reign ofJustinian, eight of the complex'sCorinthian columns were disassembled and shipped toConstantinople for incorporation in the rebuiltHagia Sophia sometime between 532 and 537.[citation needed]Michael the Syrian claimed the golden idol of Heliopolitan Jupiter was still to be seen during the reign ofJustin II (560s & 570s),[85] and, up to the time of its conquest by the Muslims, it was renowned for its palaces, monuments, and gardens.[87]
Middle Ages and early modernity
The ruins of theUmayyad Mosque of Baalbekc. 1900, prior to its reconstructionThe probable remains of a medievalmosque in front of some of theMamluk fortifications
Baalbek was occupied by theMuslim army in AD 634 (AH 13),[85] in 636,[35] or underAbu ʿUbaidah following theByzantinedefeat at Yarmouk in 637 (AH 16),[citation needed] either peacefully and by agreement[37] or following a heroic defense and yielding 2,000 oz (57 kg) of gold, 4,000 oz (110 kg) of silver, 2000 silk vests, and 1000 swords.[87] The ruined temple complex was fortified under the nameal-Qala' (lit. "The Fortress")[85] but was sacked with great violence by the Damascene caliphMarwan II in 748, at which time it was dismantled and largely depopulated.[87] It formed part of the district of Damascus under theUmayyads andAbbasids before being conquered byFatimid Egypt in 942.[37] In themid-10th century, it was said to have "gates of palaces sculptured in marble and lofty columns also of marble" and that it was the most "stupendous" and "considerable" location in the whole of Syria.[35] It was sacked and razed by the Byzantines underJohn I in 974,[37] raided byBasil II in 1000,[88] and occupied bySalih ibn Mirdas,emir ofAleppo, in 1025.[37]
In 1075, it was finally lost to the Fatimids on its conquest byTutush I,Seljuk emir ofDamascus.[37] It was briefly held byMuslim ibn Quraysh, emir ofAleppo, in 1083; after its recovery, it was ruled in the Seljuks' name by the eunuchGümüshtegin until he was deposed for conspiring against the usurperToghtekin in 1110.[37] Toghtekin then gave the town to his sonBuri. Upon Buri's succession to Damascus on his father's death in 1128, he granted the area to his sonMuhammad.[37] After Buri's murder, Muhammad successfully defended himself against the attacks of his brothersIsmaʿil andMahmud and gave Baalbek to hisvizierUnur.[37] In July 1139,Zengi, atabeg ofAleppo and stepfather of Mahmud, besieged Baalbek with 14 catapults. The outer city held until 10 October and the citadel until the 21st,[89] when Unur surrendered upon a promise of safe passage.[90] In December, Zengi negotiated with Muhammad, offering to trade Baalbek orHoms for Damascus, but Unur convinced the atabeg to refuse.[89] Zengi strengthened its fortifications and bestowed the territory on his lieutenantAyyub, father ofSaladin. Upon Zengi's assassination in 1146, Ayyub surrendered the territory to Unur, who was acting as regent for Muhammad's sonAbaq. It was granted to the eunuchAta al-Khadim,[37] who also served as viceroy of Damascus.
In December 1151, it was raided by the garrison ofBanyas as a reprisal for its role in a Turcoman raid on Banyas.[91] Following Ata's murder, his nephewDahhak, emir of theWadi al-Taym, ruled Baalbek. He was forced to relinquish it toNur ad-Din in 1154[37] after Ayyub had successfully intrigued against Abaq from his estates near Baalbek. Ayyub then administered the area from Damascus on Nur ad-Din's behalf.[92] In the mid-12th century,Idrisi mentioned Baalbek's two temples and the legend of their origin under Solomon;[93] it was visited by theJewish travelerBenjamin of Tudela in 1170.[60]
Baalbek's citadel served as a jail forCrusaders taken by the Zengids asprisoners of war.[94] In 1171, these captives successfully overpowered their guards and took possession of the castle from its garrison. Muslims from the surrounding area gathered, however, and entered the castle through a secret passageway shown to them by a local. The Crusaders were then massacred.[94]
Three major earthquakes occurred in the 12th century, in 1139, 1157, and 1170.[87] The one in 1170 ruined Baalbek's walls and, though Nur ad-Din repaired them, his young heirIsmaʿil was made to yield it toSaladin by a 4-month siege in 1174.[37] Having taken control of Damascus on the invitation of its governorIbn al-Muqaddam, Saladin rewarded him with theemirate of Baalbek following theAyyubid victory at the Horns of Hama in 1175.[95]Baldwin, the young leperking of Jerusalem, came of age the next year, ending the Crusaders' treaty with Saladin.[96] His former regent,Raymond of Tripoli, raided theBeqaa Valley from the west in the summer, suffering a slight defeat at Ibn al-Muqaddam's hands.[97] He was then joined by the main army, riding north under Baldwin andHumphrey of Toron;[97] they defeated Saladin's elder brotherTuran Shah in August atAyn al-Jarr and plundered Baalbek.[94] Upon the deposition ofTuran Shah for neglecting his duties in Damascus, however, he demanded his childhood home[98] of Baalbek as compensation. Ibn al-Muqaddam did not consent and Saladin opted to invest the city in late 1178 to maintain peace within his own family.[99] An attempt to pledge fealty to the Christians atJerusalem was ignored on behalf of an existing treaty with Saladin.[100] The siege was maintained peacefully through the snows of winter, with Saladin waiting for the "foolish" commander and his garrison of "ignorant scum" to come to terms.[101] Sometime in spring, Ibn al-Muqaddam yielded and Saladin accepted his terms, granting himBaʿrin,Kafr Tab, andal-Maʿarra.[101][102] The generosity quieted unrest among Saladin's vassals through the rest of his reign[99] but led his enemies to attempt to take advantage of his presumed weakness.[101] He did not permit Turan Shah to retain Baalbek very long, though, instructing him to lead the Egyptian troops returning home in 1179 and appointing him to a sinecure inAlexandria.[95] Baalbek was then granted to his nephewFarrukh Shah, whose family ruled it for the next half-century.[95] When Farrukh Shah died three years later, his sonBahram Shah was only a child but he was permitted his inheritance and ruled til 1230.[37] He was followed byal-Ashraf Musa, who was succeeded by his brotheras-Salih Ismail,[37] who received it in 1237 as compensation for being deprived ofDamascus by their brotheral-Kamil.[103] It was seized in 1246 after a year of assaults byas-Salih Ayyub, who bestowed it uponSaʿd al-Din al-Humaidi.[37] When as-Salih Ayyub's successorTuran Shah was murdered in 1250,al-Nasir Yusuf, thesultan of Aleppo, seized Damascus and demanded Baalbek's surrender. Instead, its emir did homage and agreed to regular payments of tribute.[37]
TheMongolian generalKitbuqa took Baalbek in 1260 and dismantled its fortifications. Later in the same year, however,Qutuz, thesultan of Egypt, defeated the Mongols and placed Baalbek under the rule of their emir in Damascus.[37] Most of the city's still-extant fine mosque and fortress architecture dates to the reign of the sultanQalawun in the 1280s.[citation needed] By the early 14th century,Abulfeda theHamathite was describing the city's "large and strong fortress".[104] The revived settlement was again destroyed by a flood on 10 May 1318, when water from the east and northeast made holes 30 m (98 ft) wide in walls 4 m (13 ft) thick.[105] 194 people were killed and 1500 houses, 131 shops, 44 orchards, 17 ovens, 11 mills, and 4 aqueducts were ruined, along with the town's mosque and 13 other religious and educational buildings.[105] In 1400,Timur pillaged the town,[106] and there was further destruction from a 1459 earthquake.[107]
Early modernity
Inside the historicalHotel Palmyra, which opened in 1878
In 1516, Baalbek was conquered with therest of Syria by theOttoman sultanSelim the Grim.[107] In recognition of their prominence among theShiites of theBeqaa Valley, the Ottomans awarded thesanjak of Homs and localiltizam concessions to Baalbek'sHarfush family. Like the Hamadas, the Harfush emirs were involved on more than one occasion in the selection of Church officials and the running of local monasteries. Tradition holds that many Christians quit the Baalbek region in the eighteenth century for the newer, more secure town ofZahlé on account of the Harfushes' oppression and rapacity, but more critical studies have questioned this interpretation, pointing out that the Harfushes were closely allied to the Orthodox Ma'luf family of Zahlé (where indeed Mustafa Harfush took refuge some years later) and showing that depredations from various quarters as well as Zahlé's growing commercial attractiveness accounted for Baalbek's decline in the eighteenth century. What repression there was did not always target the Christian community per se. The Shiite 'Usayran family, for example, is also said to have left Baalbek in this period to avoid expropriation by the Harfushes, establishing itself as one of the premier commercial households ofSidon and later even serving as consuls of Iran.[108]
From the 16th century, Europeantourists began to visit the colossal and picturesque ruins.[84][109][h]Donne hyperbolised "No ruins of antiquity have attracted more attention than those of Heliopolis, or been more frequently or accurately measured and described."[67] Misunderstanding the temple of Bacchus as the "Temple of the Sun", they considered it the best-preservedRoman temple in the world.[citation needed] The EnglishmanRobert Wood's 1757Ruins of Balbec[2] included carefully measured engravings that proved influential on British and ContinentalNeoclassical architects. For example, details of the Temple of Bacchus's ceiling inspired a bed[133] andceiling byRobert Adam and its portico inspired that ofSt George's inBloomsbury.[134]
During the 18th century, the western approaches were covered with attractive groves ofwalnut trees,[57] but the town itself suffered badly during the1759 earthquakes, after which it was held by theMetawali, who again feuded with other Lebanese tribes.[citation needed] Their power was broken byJezzar Pasha, the rebel governor ofAcre, in the last half of the 18th century.[citation needed] All the same, Baalbek remained no destination for a traveller unaccompanied by an armed guard.[citation needed] Upon the pasha's death in 1804, chaos ensued untilIbrahim Pasha of Egypt occupied the area in 1831, after which it again passed into the hands of the Harfushes.[107] In 1835, the town's population was barely 200 people.[126] In 1850, the Ottomans finally began direct administration of the area, making Baalbek akaza under theDamascus Eyalet and its governor akaymakam.[107]
EmperorWilhelm II ofGermany and his wife passed through Baalbek on 1 November 1898,[84] on their way to Jerusalem. He noted both the magnificence of the Roman remains and the drab condition of the modern settlement.[84] It was expected at the time that natural disasters, winter frosts, and the raiding of building materials by the city's residents would shortly ruin the remaining ruins.[104] The archaeological team he dispatched began work within a month. Despite finding nothing they could date prior to Baalbek'sRoman occupation,[135]Otto Puchstein and his associates worked until 1904[84] and produced a meticulously researched and thoroughly illustrated series of volumes.[135] Later excavations under the Roman flagstones in the Great Court unearthed threeskeletons and a fragment ofPersian pottery dated to the 6th–4th centuries BC. Thesherd featuredcuneiform letters.[136]
In 1977,Jean-Pierre Adam made a brief study suggesting most of the large blocks could have been moved on rollers withmachines usingcapstans andpulley blocks, a process which he theorised could use 512 workers to move a 557 tonnes (614 tons) block.[137][138] "Baalbek, with its colossal structures, is one of the finest examples of Imperial Roman architecture at its apogee",UNESCO reported in making Baalbek aWorld Heritage Site in 1984.[139] When the committee inscribed the site, it expressed the wish that the protected area include the entire town within the Arab walls, as well as the southwestern extramural quarter between Bastan-al-Khan, the Roman site and the Mameluk mosque of Ras-al-Ain. Lebanon's representative gave assurances that the committee's wish would be honoured. Recent cleaning operations at the Temple of Jupiter discovered the deep trench at its edge, whose study pushed back the date of Tell Baalbek's settlement to thePPNBNeolithic. Finds included potterysherds including a spout dating to the earlyBronze Age.[140] In the summer of 2014, a team from theGerman Archaeological Institute led by Jeanine Abdul Massih of theLebanese University discovered a sixth, much larger stone suggested to be theworld's largest ancient block. The stone was found underneath and next to the Stone of the Pregnant Woman ("Hajjar al-Hibla") and measures around 19.6 m × 6 m × 5.5 m (64 ft × 20 ft × 18 ft). It is estimated to weigh[141]1,650 tonnes (1,820 tons).[142]
In March 1974,Musa al-Sadr announced the launching of the "Movement of the Deprived" in front of a rally in Baalbek attended by 75,000 men. Its objective was to stand up for Lebanon's neglectedShia community. In his speech he listed grievances with the Lebanese government, including Baalbek's lack of a secondary school, Shia communities receiving disproportionately less funds from the national budget, most of the homeless being Shia etc. The occasion was a religious one, and there was celebratory gunfire preceding it.[145] He also announced the setting up of military training camps to train villagers in southern Lebanon to protect their homes from Israeli attacks. These camps led to the creation of theAmal Militia.[146]
By the 2000s, Baalbek was frequently described as a stronghold of Hezbollah,[15][16][17] although it also has a large presence of Christians and Sunni Muslims.[147][141] Many of the city's mayors have been Shia, but since 2022, Baalbek has had a Sunni mayor.[141]
Israeli–Lebanon conflict
In 1978, Israel invaded south Lebanon, forcing hundreds of thousands of Shia Muslims to flee.[148] As a result of the invasion, whenHassan Nasrallah returned to Lebanon from his studies inNajaf, he was unable to return to hishometown in the south, and instead settled in Baalbek.[149]Abbas al-Musawi also moved to Baalbek.[149]
In 1982, at the height of anotherIsraeli invasion, Amal split into two factions overNabih Berri's acceptance of the American plan to evacuate Palestinians from West Beirut. A large number of dissidents, led by Amal's military commanderHussein Musawi moved to Baalbek.[150] Once established in the town the group, which was to evolve into Hezbollah, began to work with IranianRevolutionary Guards, veterans of theIran Iraq War. The following year the Iranians established their headquarters in the Sheikh Abdullah barracks in Baalbek.[151] Ultimately there were between 1,500 and 2,000 Revolutionary Guards in Lebanon,[152] with outposts further south in theShia villages, such asJebchit.[153]
In 1984, Israel launched raids on Baalbek, killing 100 Lebanese civilians and wounding hundreds inside the city.[154] Israel also bombed a school in theWavel Palestinian refugee camp next to the city, wounding 150 school children.[154]
On 24/25 June 1999, following elections in Israel and the new administration undecided, theIAF launched two massive air raids across Lebanon. One of the targets was theal Manar radio station's offices in a four-storey building in Baalbek which was completely demolished. The attacks also hit Beirut's power stations and bridges on the roads to the south. An estimated $52 million damage was caused. Eleven Lebanese were killed as well as two Israelis inKiryat Shmona.[155]
A map of Israeli bombing during theSecond Lebanon War. Baalbek was a major target, with more than 70 bombs dropped.
2006 Lebanon War
During the 2006 Lebanon war, many Israeli bombs fell inside the historic Roman town, and some fell as close as 300 meters from the temple of Baalbek.[156] After the war, UNESCO stated that the cracks in the Roman temples had widened.[157] The damage was thought to be due to shockwaves created by the bombs.[158]
More than 250 houses and buildings were destroyed by Israel during the war.[147] Reporters investigating the aftermath found these to be civilian houses and didn't find any evidence of military use.[147]
On the evening of 1 August 2006,[159] hundreds ofIsraeli Defense Forces (IDF) soldiers raided Baalbek and the Dar al-Hikma[160] or Hikmeh Hospital in Jamaliyeh[159] to its north ("Operation Sharp and Smooth"). Their mission was to rescue two captured soldiers,Ehud Goldwasser andEldad Regev, who were abducted by Hezbollah on 12 July 2006. They were transported by helicopter[159] and supported byApache helicopters andunmanned drones,[160][159] TheIDF was acting on information that Goldwasser and Regev were at the hospital.al-Jazeera and other sources claimed the IDF was attempting to capture senior Hezbollah officials, particularly SheikhMohammad Yazbek. The hospital had been empty for four days, the most unwell patients having been transferred and the rest sent home.[160]
On August 7, Israel killed 9 civilians in an attack onBrital, just south of Baalbek, and by the subsequent attack on the car leaving the scene for the hospital.[161] AHuman Rights Watch investigation showed that none of those killed were combatants, it is likely none were members of Hezbollah, and none of the survivors had any knowledge of any military presence at place of the attack.[162]
On 14 August just before the ceasefire took effect, two Lebanese police and five Lebanese soldiers were killed by a drone strike while driving their van around the still-damaged road through Jamaliyeh.[163]
Geography
Climate
Baalbek has amediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification:Csa) with significant continental influences. It is located in one of the drier regions of the country, giving it an annual average of 450 millimetres or 18 inches of rainfall compared with 800 to 850 millimetres (31 to 33 in) in coastal areas, overwhelmingly concentrated in the months from November to April. Baalbek has hot rainless summers with cool (and occasionally snowy) winters. Autumn and spring are mild and fairly rainy.
Climate data for Baalbek (Chlifa), elevation 1,000 m (3,300 ft)
Baalbek's tourism sector suffered significantly due to theLebanese Civil war (1975–1990). After the civil war ended, tourism gradually saw a resurgence, including opera, orchestras.[166] But it was once again disrupted by Israeli bombings of Baalbek during the 2006 war.[166]
After the 2006 war, conservation work at Lebanon's historic sites began in October that year.[167] The ruins at Baalbek were not directly hit by Israeli bombing but the effects of blasts during the conflict toppled a block of stones at the Roman ruins and existing cracks in the temples of Jupiter and Bacchus were feared to have widened.[167] Frederique Husseini, director-general of Lebanon's Department of Antiquities, requested $550,000 from Europeans to restore Baalbek's souk and another $900,000 for repairs to other damaged structures.[167]
Starting in the early 2000s, Hezbollah organized permanent or temporary exhibitions called "Exposition of the Resistance" which commemorate what is considered to be Lebanese resistance to Israeli occupation. Spanning several hundred square meters, the exhibitions feature defused Israeli weapons, recreated scenes of war, and photos and videos of Lebanese people killed by Israel.[168][169] Starting in 2009, Hezbollah setup an exhibition to commemorate the 2006 war.[168]
During theSyrian civil war, the UKFCO designated areas close to the Syrian border, including Baalbek and the rest of Beqaa valley, as "red zone" – advising against all travel.[170] The US State Department made a similar designation. These designations, prompted by perceived proximity to Syria and clashes betweenSunnis and Alawites, discouraged international tourism.[170]
1911 diagram of the ruins after thePuchstein excavations.[173] (Facing SW, with the Temple of Jupiter labelled "Temple of the Sun")
The Tell Baalbek temple complex, fortified as the town's citadel during the Middle Ages,[107] was constructed from local stone, mostly whitegranite and a rough whitemarble.[58] Over the years, it has suffered from the region's numerous earthquakes, theiconoclasm of Christian and Muslim lords,[67] and the reuse of the temples' stone for fortification and other construction. The temples also suffered minor damage from the shockwaves generated by nearby Israeli bombings in the 2006 Lebanon war.[158] The nearbyQubbat Duris, a 13th-centuryMuslim shrine on the old road to Damascus, is built out of granite columns, apparently removed from Baalbek.[58] Further, the jointed columns were once banded together with iron; many were gouged open[174] or toppled by the emirs of Damascus to get at the metal.[58] As late as the 16th century, the Temple of Jupiter still held 27 standing columns[113] out of an original 58;[175] there were only nine before the1759 earthquakes[2] and six today.[when?]
The complex is located on a raised plaza erected 5 m (16 ft) over an earlier T-shaped base consisting of a podium, staircase, and foundation walls.[i] These walls were built from about 24monoliths, at their lowest level weighing approximately 300 tonnes (330 tons) each. The tallest retaining wall, on the west, has a second course of monoliths containing the famous "Three Stones" (Ancient Greek:Τρίλιθον,Trílithon):[52] a row of three stones, each over 19 m (62 ft) long, 4.3 m (14 ft) high, and 3.6 m (12 ft) broad, cut fromlimestone. They weigh approximately 800 tonnes (880 tons) each.[176] A fourth, still larger stone is called theStone of the Pregnant Woman: it lies unused in a nearby quarry 800 m (2,600 ft) from the town.[177] Its weight is estimated at 1,000 tonnes (1,100 tons).[178] A fifth, still larger stone weighing approximately 1,200 tonnes (1,300 tons)[179] lies in the same quarry. This quarry was slightly higher than the temple complex,[180][137][181] so no lifting was required to move the stones.[182][183]
The temple complex was entered from the east through thePropylaea (προπύλαιον,propýlaion) or Portico,[67] consisting of a broad staircase rising 20 feet (6.1 m)[184] to an arcade of 12 columns flanked by 2 towers.[84] Most of the columns have been toppled and the stairs were entirely dismantled for use in the nearby later wall,[52][j] but a Latin inscription remains on several of their bases stating that Longinus, a lifeguard of the1st Parthian Legion, and Septimius, a freedman, gilded their capitals withbronze in gratitude for the safety ofSeptimius Severus's sonAntoninus Caracalla and empressJulia Domna.[185][k]
Immediately behind the Propylaeum is a hexagonal forecourt[84] reached through a threefold entrance[87] that was added in the mid-3rd century by the emperorPhilip the Arab.[citation needed] Traces remain of the two series of columns which once encircled it, but its original function remains uncertain.[84]Donne reckoned it as the town'sforum.[67] Badly preserved coins of the era led some to believe this was a sacredcypress grove, but better specimens show that the coins displayed a single stalk of grain instead.[186]
The rectangular Great Court to its west covers around 3 or 4 acres (1.2 or 1.6 ha)[87] and included the mainaltar forburnt offering, withmosaic-flooredlustration basins to its north and south, asubterranean chamber,[187] and three underground passageways 17 ft (5.2 m) wide by 30 ft (9.1 m) high, two of which run east and west and the third connecting them north and south, all bearing inscriptions suggesting their occupation by Roman soldiers.[87] These were surrounded byCorinthianporticoes, one of which was never completed.[187] The columns' bases and capitals were of limestone; the shafts were monoliths of highly polished redEgyptiangranite 7.08 m (23.2 ft) high.[187] Six remain standing, out of an original 128.[citation needed] Inscriptions attest that the court was once adorned by portraits ofMarcus Aurelius's daughterSabina,Septimius Severus,Gordian, andVelius Rufus, dedicated by the city's Roman colonists.[187] Theentablature was richly decorated but is now mostly ruined.[187] A westward-facing basilica was constructed over the altar during the reign ofTheodosius; it was later altered to make it eastward-facing like mostChristianchurches.[85]
The Great Court of ancient Heliopolis's temple complex
The Temple of Jupiter—once wrongly credited toHelios[188]—lay at the western end of the Great Court, raised another 7 m (23 ft) on a 47.7 m × 87.75 m (156.5 ft × 287.9 ft) platform reached by a wide staircase.[175] Under theByzantines, it was also known as the "Trilithon" from the three massive stones in its foundation and, when taken together with the forecourt and Great Court, it is also known as the Great Temple.[173] The Temple of Jupiter proper was circled by aperistyle of 54 unflutedCorinthian columns:[189] 10 in front and back and 19 along each side.[175] The temple was ruined by earthquakes,[84] destroyed and pillaged for stone underTheodosius,[85] and 8 columns were taken toConstantinople (Istanbul) underJustinian for incorporation into theHagia Sophia.[citation needed] Three fell during the late 18th century.[87] 6 columns, however, remain standing along its south side with their entablature.[175] Their capitals remain nearly perfect on the south side, while theBeqaa's winter winds have worn the northern faces almost bare.[190] Thearchitrave andfrieze blocks weigh up to 60 tonnes (66 tons) each, and one corner block over 100 tonnes (110 tons), all of them raised to a height of 19 m (62.34 ft) above the ground.[191] IndividualRoman cranes were not capable of lifting stones this heavy. They may have simply been rolled into position along temporary earthen banks from the quarry.[190] TheJulio-Claudian emperors enriched its sanctuary in turn. In the mid-1st century,Nero built the tower-altar opposite the temple. In the early 2nd century,Trajan added the temple's forecourt, withporticos ofpink granite shipped fromAswan at the southern end ofEgypt.[citation needed]
TheTemple of Bacchus—once wrongly credited to Jupiter[192][l]—may have been completed underSeptimius Severus in the 190s, as his coins are the first to show it beside the Temple of Jupiter.[citation needed] It is the best preserved of the sanctuary's structures, as the other rubble from its ruins protected it.[citation needed] It is enriched by some of the most refined reliefs and sculpture to survive fromantiquity.[174] The temple is surrounded by forty-two columns—8 along each end and 15 along each side[193]—nearly 20 m (66 ft) in height.[citation needed] These were probably erected in a rough state and then rounded, polished, and decorated in position.[174][m] The entrance was preserved as late asPococke[119] andWood,[2] but thekeystone of thelintel had slid 2 ft (1 m) following the1759 earthquakes; a column of rough masonry was erected in the 1860s or '70s to support it.[193] The1759 earthquakes also damaged the area around thesoffit's famed inscription of an eagle,[109] which was entirely covered by the keystone's supporting column. The area around the inscription of the eagle was greatly damaged by the1759 earthquake.[109] The interior of the temple is divided into a 98 ft (30 m)nave and a 36 ft (11 m)adytum or sanctuary[193] on a platform raised 5 ft (2 m) above it and fronted by 13 steps.[174] The screen between the two sections once held reliefs ofNeptune,Triton,Arion and his dolphin, and other marine figures[118] but these have been lost.[174] The temple was used as a kind ofdonjon for the medieval Arab and Turkish fortifications,[107] although its eastern steps were lost sometime after 1688.[194] Much of the portico was incorporated into a huge wall directly before its gate, but this was demolished in July 1870 by Barker[who?] on orders fromSyria's governorRashid Pasha.[193] Two spiral staircases in columns on either side of the entrance lead to the roof.[109]
The Temple of Venus—also known as the Circular Temple orNymphaeum[185]—was added underSeptimius Severus in the early 3rd century[citation needed] but destroyed underConstantine, who raised a basilica in its place.[109]Jessup considered it the "gem of Baalbek".[185] It lies about 150 yd (140 m) from the southeast corner of the Temple of Bacchus.[185] It was known in the 19th century asEl Barbara[185] orBarbarat el-Atikah (St Barbara's), having been used as aGreek Orthodox church into the 18th century.[109][n]
The ancient walls of Heliopolis had a circumference of a little less than 4 mi (6 km).[67] Much of the extant fortifications around the complex date to the 13th century[85] reconstruction undertaken by theMamluk sultanQalawun following the devastation of the earlier defenses by theMongol army underKitbuqa.[37] This includes the great southeast tower.[107] The earliest round of fortifications were two walls to the southwest of the Temples of Jupiter and Bacchus.[107] The original southern gateway with two small towers was filled in and replaced by a new large tower flanked by curtains,[clarification needed] probably underBuri orZengi.[107]Bahramshah replaced that era's southwest tower with one of his own in 1213 and built another in the northwest in 1224; the west tower was probably strengthened around the same time.[107] An inscription dates thebarbican-like strengthening of the southern entrance to around 1240.[107] Qalawun relocated the two western curtains[clarification needed] nearer to the western tower, which was rebuilt with great blocks of stone. The barbican was repaired and more turns added to its approach.[107] From around 1300, no alterations were made to the fortifications apart from repairs such as SultanBarkuk's restoration of the moat in preparation for Timur's arrival.[107]
Material from the ruins is incorporated into a ruined mosque north of downtown[195] and probably also in theQubbat Duris on the road toDamascus.[195] In the 19th century, a "shell-topped canopy" from the ruins was used nearby as amihrab, propped up to show locals the direction ofMecca for theirdaily prayers.[195]
Under a white dome further towards town is the tomb of Khawla, daughter ofHussein and granddaughter of Ali, who died in Baalbek while Husayn's family was being transported as prisoners to Damascus.[196][197]
Ecclesiastical history
Heliopolis (in Phoenicia; not to be confused with the Egyptian bishopricHeliopolis in Augustamnica) was a bishopric under Roman and Byzantine rule, but it disappeared due to the Islamic rule.
In theLatin Church, the Ancient diocese was only nominally restored (no later than 1876) asTitular archbishopric of Heliopolis (Latin) / Eliopoli (Curiate Italian), demoted in 1925 to EpiscopalTitular bishopric, promoted back in 1932, with its name changed (avoiding Egyptian confusion) in 1933 to (non-Metropolitan) Titular archbishopric ofHeliopolis in Phoenicia.
The title has not been assigned since 1965. It was held by:[198]
Titular Archbishop: Luigi Poggi (1876.09.29 – death 1877.01.22) on emeritate (promoted) as former Bishop ofRimini (Italy) (1871.10.27 – 1876.09.29)
Titular Archbishop:Mario Mocenni (1877.07.24 – 1893.01.16) as papal diplomat :Apostolic Delegate toColombia (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Delegate to Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Honduras (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Delegate to Ecuador (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Delegate to Peru and Bolivia (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Delegate to Venezuela (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28),Apostolic Internuncio to Brazil (1882.03.28 – 1882.10.18), createdCardinal-Priest ofS. Bartolomeo all'Isola (1893.01.19 – 1894.05.18), promotedCardinal-Bishop ofSabina (1894.05.18 – death 1904.11.14)
Titular Archbishop: Augustinus Accoramboni (1896.06.22 – death 1899.05.17), without prelature
Titular Archbishop: Robert John Seton (1903.06.22 – 1927.03.22), without prelature
Titular Archbishop: Daniel Rivero Rivero (1951 – death 1960.05.23) (born Bolivia) on emeritate, formerly Titular Bishop ofTlous (1922.05.17 – 1931.03.30) asCoadjutor Bishop ofSanta Cruz de la Sierra (Bolivia) (1922.05.17 – 1931.03.30) succeeding as Bishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra (1931.03.30 – 1940.02.03), Metropolitan Archbishop ofSucre (Bolivia) (1940.02.03 – 1951)
Titular Archbishop:Raffaele Calabria (1960.07.12 – 1962.01.01) asCoadjutor Archbishop ofBenevento (Italy) (1960.07.12 – 1962.01.01), succeeding as Metropolitan Archbishop of Benevento (1962.01.01 – 1982.05.24); previously Titular Archbishop ofSoteropolis (1950.05.06 – 1952.07.10) as Coadjutor Archbishop ofOtranto (Italy) (1950.05.06 – 1952.07.10), succeeding as Metropolitan Archbishop of Otranto (Italy) (1952.07.10 – 1960.07.12)
Titular Archbishop:Ottavio De Liva (1962.04.18 – death 1965.08.23) as papal diplomat :Apostolic Internuncio to Indonesia (1962.04.18 – 1965.08.23).
^The name also appears in the Hellenized formBalanios andBaal Helion in records describing the acts ofTheodosius's reign.[35]
^The Egyptian priests' claims that Heliopolis represented a direct descendant of Ra's cult atIunu, however, is almost certainly mistaken.[36]
^Daniel Lohmann wrote that, "due to the lack of remains of temple architecture, it can be assumed that the temple this terrace was built for was never completed or entirely destroyed before any new construction started..."[68][page needed] "The unfinished pre-Roman sanctuary construction was incorporated into a master plan of monumentalisation. Apparently challenged by the already huge pre-Roman construction, the early imperial Jupiter sanctuary shows both an architectural megalomaniac design and construction technique in the first half of the first century AD."[69]
^"It is apparent from a graffito on one of the columns of the Temple of Jupiter that that building was nearing completion in 60 A.D."[70]
^"Current survey and interpretation, show that a pre-Roman floor level about 5 m lower than the late Great Roman Courtyard floor existed underneath".[69]
^The inscriptions were distinct in the 18th century[2] but becoming illegible by the end of the 19th:[185]
[I. O.] M. DIIS HELIVPOL. PRO SAL. [ET] VICTORIIS D. N. ANTONINI PII FEL. AVG. ET IVLIÆ AVG. MATRIS D. N. CAST. SENAT. PATR., AVR. ANT. LONGINVS SPECVL. LEG. I. [ANT]ONINIANÆ CAPITA COLVMNARVM DVA ÆREA AVRO INLVMINATA SVA PECVNIA EX VOTO L. A. S.[84] and [I. O.] M. PRO SAL[VTE] D. [N.] IMP. ANTONIN[I PII FELICIS...] [...SEP]TIMI[VS...] BAS AVG. LIB. CAPVT COLVMNÆ ÆNEUM AVRO INL[VMINAT]VM VOTVM SVA PECVNIA L. [A. S.][84]
^It has also been misattributed toApollo andHelios.[87] The locals once knew it as theDar es-Sa'adeh or "Court of Happiness".[193]
^Thecornice of theexaedrum in the northwest corner remains partially sculpted and partially plain.[174]
^In the 1870s and '80s, itsMetawali caretaker Um Kasim would demandbakshish from visitors and for use of the olive oil lamps used to make vows to St Barbara.[185]
^abcNajem, Tom; Amore, Roy C.; Abu Khalil, As'ad (2021).Historical Dictionary of Lebanon. Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East (2nd ed.). Lanham Boulder New York London: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 45–46.ISBN978-1-5381-2043-9.
^Chaddad, Rita (2021). "Culture, tourism, and territory: Analyzing discourses and perceptions of actors in Byblos and Baalbek in Lebanon".Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change.19 (6):805–818.doi:10.1080/14766825.2020.1802470.
^abSaade, Bashir (2016).Hizbullah and the politics of remembrance: writing the Lebanese nation. Cambridge Middle East studies. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 135.ISBN978-1-107-10181-4.
^Jeanine Abdul Massih (13 July 2023)."Quarrying Megaliths in Heliolopis Baalbek (Lebanon)". In Barker, Simon J.; Courault, Christopher; Domingo, Javier Á; Maschek, Dominik (eds.).From Concept to Monument: Time and Costs of Construction in the Ancient World: Papers in Honour of Janet DeLaine. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. p. 170.ISBN978-1-78969-423-9.
^Michel M. Alouf -History of Baalbek 1922 "After the defeat and murder of Hossein by the Ommiads, his family was led captive to Damascus; but Kholat died at Baalbek on her way into exile."
^Nelles Guide Syria – Lebanon -Wolfgang Gockel, Helga Bruns – 1998 – Page 202 3886181057 "Ensconced under a white dome further towards town are the mortal remains of Kholat, daughter of Hussein and granddaughter of."
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